a cross-cultural study of emotional intelligence 情商的跨文化研究

1、<p>　　Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership: A Cross-Cultural Study </p><p>　　M. Afzalur Rahim</p><p>　　Center for Advanced Studies in Management</p

2、><p>　　1574 Mallory Court</p><p>　　Bowling Green, KY 42103, USA</p><p>　　Phone/Fax: 270–782–2898/2601, Email: mgt2000@aol.com</p><p>　　Clement Psenicka</p><p&

3、gt;　　Management Department</p><p>　　Youngstown State University</p><p>　　Youngstown, OH 44555</p><p>　　Phone: 330–757–8188, Email: cpsenick@cc.ysu.edu</p><p>　　Sae-Yoon

4、 Oh</p><p>　　Department of Public Administration</p><p>　　Honam University </p><p>　　59-1 Seobong-Dong</p><p>　　Gwangsan-Gu, Gwangiu-City, South Korea</p><p&

5、gt;　　Phone/Fax: + 82-62-940-5243/5227, Email: syoh@honam.ac.kr</p><p>　　Panagiotis Polychroniou</p><p>　　University of Ioannina</p><p>　　2, G. Seferi St.</p><p>　　Agrin

6、io, Greece</p><p>　　Phone/Fax: 0030-26410-39523/39579, ppolychr@cc.uoi.gr</p><p>　　Joao Ferreira Dias</p><p>　　ISCTE - Portugal</p><p>　　Edificio ISCTE (cacifo 238-B)&

7、lt;/p><p>　　Av. das Foras Armadas, 1649-026</p><p>　　LISBOA, Portugal</p><p>　　Phone: +(351)938450825, Email: fdias@iscte.pt</p><p>　　Md. Sahidur Rahman</p><p&g

8、t;　　Shameema Ferdausy</p><p>　　University of Chittagong</p><p>　　Department of Management</p><p>　　Chittagong, Bangladesh</p><p>　　Phone/Fax: 880-31-716552/726310, Emai

9、l: sahidur_cu@yahoo.com, s_ferdausy@yahoo.com</p><p>　　Running head: Social Competence, Emotional Intelligence, Transformational Leadership</p><p><b>　　Abstract</b></p><p

10、>　　This study investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence—empathy and social skills—and transformational leadership. Questionnaire data on emotional intelligence and transformational leadership for th

11、is study were collected in five countries (U.S., Greece, Portugal, South Korea, and Bangladesh) from observers (an MBA student and two of his/her colleagues who had the same supervisor, N = 685 triads). In other words, t

12、hree observers rated their common supervisor on the independent an</p><p>　　Literature in organizational behavior and industrial and organizational psychology generally acknowledge the inadequacy of intellig

13、ence as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. In reviewing the literature on intelligence and transformational leadership, Bass (2002) concluded that traditional conceptualization of intelligence is generally concerne

14、d with the analytical or academic aspect of intelligence, but an adequate conceptualization of this construct comprises other aspects, such as emotio</p><p>　　Over the years many studies on intelligence focu

15、sed mainly on the adaptive use of cognition, but in recent years theorists such as Gardner (1983, 1999) and Sternberg (1985, 2002) have suggested more encompassing approaches to conceptualizing intelligence. Although Gar

16、dner did not use the term emotional intelligence, his concepts of intra- and inter-personal intelligences provided the basis for the conceptualization of EQ. Whereas, intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to be aware

17、 of and regu</p><p>　　In his role as a consultant in organizations, Goleman (1998; see also Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002) found that emotional intelligence is twice more important than technical skil

18、ls and IQ for jobs at all levels. He also reported that emotional intelligence plays an increasingly important role at the highest levels of a company. When he compared "Star performers with average ones in senior

19、leadership positions, nearly 90% of the difference in their profiles was attributable to emotional intel</p><p>　　Studies on EQ in an organizational context are limited, but scholars and writers in managemen

20、t are beginning to emphasize the importance EQ on leadership effectiveness (Bass, 2002; Goleman, 1998; Hesselbein, Goldsmith, & Beckhard, 1996; Megerian & Sosik, 1996; Morris & Feldman, 1996). These theoretic

21、al contributions suggest that some aspects of EQ may be associated with effective leadership. Sosik and Megerian (1999) suggest that an intrapersonal aspect of EQ, such as self-awareness, which invol</p><p>

22、　　Emotional intelligence refers to one's ability to be aware of one's own feelings, be aware of others' feelings, to differentiate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and behavi

23、or (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). This definition consists of three categories of abilities: evaluation and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion, and using emotions in decision-making. Goleman (1998) provided a s

24、imilar definition: "the capacity for organizing our own feelings and those of othe</p><p>　　Emotional Intelligence</p><p>　　Several scholars use the term EQ to include almost everything but

25、 IQ: emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-confidence, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, innovation, and so on (Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Goleman, 1998), but this framework stretches the co

26、nceptualization of intelligence way beyond acceptable limits (Hedlund & Sternberg, 2000). As suggested by Salovey and Mayer (1994) and Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey (2000) there should be a more restrictive model of EQ

27、 ba</p><p>　　1. Empathy refers to one's ability of understanding others and taking active interest in them, recognizing and responding to changes in their emotional states, understanding their feelings

28、transmitted through verbal and nonverbal messages, to provide emotional support to people when needed, and to understand the links between their emotions and behavior.</p><p>　　2. Social Skills is associate

29、d with one's ability of inducing desirable responses in others, dealing with problems without demeaning those who work with him or her, to not allow own or others' negative feelings to inhibit collaboration, and

30、to negotiate and manage affective conflict with tack and diplomacy.</p><p>　　Transformational Leadership</p><p>　　Following Burns (1978), Bass (1985; see also Bass & Avolino, 1993) proposed

31、that transformational leadership is associated with distinct dimensions of intellectual stimulation (encouraging followers to question their own way of doing things and become innovative), individualized consideration (p

32、roviding personal attention, empathy, and encouragement for self-development of followers), charisma or idealized influence (trust, respect, and pride stimulated by and emotional identification with the l</p><

33、p>　　Developed by Bass (1985), the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a widely used instrument to assess the three aspects of transformational leadership—charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individualize

34、d consideration. However, there has been lack of evidence of construct validity of the instrument (Tejeda, 2001). Carlessa's (1998) study indicated that there is little evidence to support that the MLQ measures three

35、 distinct transformational leader behaviors. In the present study, we c</p><p>　　On the basis of our theoretical discussion, we formulate the following hypotheses for the study:</p><p>　　Hypothe

36、sis 1: Empathy is positively associated with transformational leadership.</p><p>　　Hypothesis 2: Social skills is positively associated with transformational leadership.</p><p>　　We also wante

37、d to explore how these relationships differ between individualistic (U.S., Greece, and Portugal) and collectivistic (China and Bangladesh) cultures?</p><p>　　Davis, Stankov, and Roberts’ (1998, p. 1013) stud

38、y indicates the potential dark side of popularizing a construct before it is carefully conceptualized and operationalized and rigorous empirical studies are completed. Self-report measures of EQ (e.g., Bar-On, 1997; Boya

39、tzis & Goleman, 2001; Bernet, 1996; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; Law, Wong, & Song, 2004; Mayer et al., 2000; Schutte et al., 1998) and criterion variables may have resulted in common method variance. This occurs w

40、hen data are collected </p><p>　　The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationships of two dimensions of social competencies of EQ—empathy and social skills—to transformational leadershi

41、p in a cross-cultural context. An attempt was made to overcome some of the limitations of the existing self-report measures of EQ by using a new measure which involved asking observers (e.g., MBA students and their colle

42、agues) to assess their supervisor's EQ and transformational leadership.</p><h4>　　Cultural Differences Among the Five Countries</h2><p>　　Since our study investigated the relationship betwee

43、n EQ and transformational leadership in five countries, it is appropriate to discuss cultural differences among these countries. Hofstede's study (1980) shows that the five countries differ greatly on the cultural di

44、mension of individualism–collectivism. In individualistic cultures, individuals primarily look after their own and immediate family's interests (husband, wife, and children), but in collectivist cultures, individuals

45、 belong to one o</p><p>　　Hofstede's other cultural dimensions are power distance (i.e., the extent to which the less powerful members of an organization believe and accept that power is unevenly distrib

46、uted), uncertainty avoidance (i.e., the extent to which people avoid unclear or unpredictable situations), and masculinity (i.e., the extent to which there is sex role differentiation). The differences on these dimensio

47、ns among the five countries were not very high.</p><p><b>　　Method</b></p><p>　　Sample and Procedure</p><p>　　Data for this study were collected from 685 dyads (MBA stud

48、ents and their colleagues) in the U.S. (n = 128), Greece (n = 86), Portugal (n = 74), South Korea (n = 263), and Bangladesh (n = 134). The EQ data were collected from MBA students and their colleagues in order to make th

49、e samples from the five countries as comparable as possible.</p><p>　　Average chronological age of the respondents in the five countries ranged between 27.3135.19 (SD = 4.75–10.19). Their average full-time

50、work experience with the present supervisors ranged between 2.73–4.74 (SD = 3.04–4.87) years. The percentage of male respondents in the five countries ranged between 68%–89%.</p><p>　　Measurement</p>

51、<p>　　Emotional Intelligence. The two dimensions of supervisory EQ were measured with 12 items adopted from the EQ Index (EQI) (Rahim et al., 2002). These items were designed to measure subordinates' perceptio

52、ns of their respective supervisors' empathy and social skills. The EQI was designed on the basis of repeated feedback from respondents and faculty and an iterative process of exploratory and confirmatory factor anal

53、yses of various sets of items. Considerable attention was devoted to the study </p><p>　　Transformational Leadership. This was measured with 12 items adapted from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (M

54、LQ) (Bass, 1985). The respondents were asked to rank each item on a 7–point box scale (7 = Strongly Agree . . . 1 = Strongly Disagree). The scale was computed by averaging the responses to the items. A higher score indic

55、ates greater transformational leadership. Sample items for this scale are: "In my mind, he/she is a symbol of success and accomplishment," (charisma) “My superviso</p><p>　　Translation. Bilingual p

56、rofessors from the four countries outside the U.S. translated the two instruments first. Suggestions on the translated version were requested from a group of bilingual experts who translated these scales back to English.

57、 The final version was developed after accommodating their feedback. As a result of this translationback translation, the scales achieved the kind of linguistic equivalence suggested by Bhagat and McQuid (1982).</p>

58、;<p>　　Sample and Procedure</p><p>　　Data on EQ and transformational leadership were collected with the EQI and MLQ from triads in each of the five countries. Each triad consisted of an MBA student an

59、d two of colleagues who had the same supervisor. The data for each triad were averaged. It is expected that this procedure will overcome the problems of common method biases (i.e., variance due to the measurement method

60、rather than the constructs the measures represent) voiced by Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). </p><p>　　Analysis and Results</p><p>　　The first part of the analysis was designed

61、to test the psychometric properties of the EQI and MLQ. The second part of the analysis was designed to test the two study hypotheses.</p><p>　　Factor Analysis</p><p>　　EQI. Exploratory factor a

62、nalysis (principal component analysis and varimax rotation) on the EQI items supported the two independent dimensions of emotional intelligence. The internal consistency reliability coefficients of the two subscales of t

63、he EQI, as assessed with Cronbach , ranged between .56 and .95 (see Table 1). These coefficients in Bangladesh were relatively lower than other countries.</p><p>　　Since the EQI is a new scale, we checked i

64、ts test–retest reliability coefficients with an American collegiate sample of 163 management students who had jobs, which were .87 and .91 for empathy and social skills, respectively. Items for the measurement of emotion

65、al intelligence may be susceptible to social desirability response bias. To check this, we computed correlations between the two subscales of EQI and Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability scale (Crown & Marlowe, 1990) in

66、 an American collegiat</p><p>　　Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, internal consistency reliability coefficients, and Pearson correlations between the subscales of EQI and MLQ.</p><p

67、>　　______________________</p><p>　　Insert Table 1 about here</p><p>　　______________________</p><p>　　MLQ. We computed an exploratory factor analysis (principal component analysi

68、s and varimax rotation) on the 12 items of MLQ. Results confirmed a significant factor representing transformational leadership. The Cronbach s for this scale ranged between .63 and .95 in the five countries.</p>

69、<p>　　Regression Analyses</p><p>　　We computed five multiple regression analyses, one for each country. Each regression analysis was computed with the two subscales of the EQI as the independent variabl

70、es and transformational leadership as the dependent variable. Table 2 shows the results.</p><p>　　______________________</p><p>　　Insert Table 2 about here</p><p>　　________________

71、______</p><p>　　Empathy was positively associated with transformational leadership in all the five countries that provided full support to Hypothesis 1. Social skills was positively associated with transform

72、ational leadership in the U.S., Greece, South Korea, and Bangladesh, but not in Portugal, which provided partial support to Hypothesis 2. Overall, we conclude that there are similarities in the relationships of empathy a

73、nd social skills to transformational leadership between the individualistic and collectiv</p><p>　　Discussion</p><p>　　This was a preliminary attempt to investigate the relationship between emot

74、ional intelligence and transformational leadership in a cross-cultural context. The challenge was translating the measurement instruments in four languages and collecting data from 685 triads in five countries.</p>

75、<p>　　Results provided some evidence of convergent and criterion validities and reliabilities of the measure of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Results indicated how subordinates' perce

76、ptions of leader EQ are associated with transformational leadership behaviors in the five countries. The results were somewhat consistent across the five countries that provided partial support to Spector et al.’s (2002)

77、 conclusions that the findings from field studies in the U.S. are generalizab</p><h4>　　Implications for Management</h2><p>　　The implications of the study are that supervisors need to acquire a

78、nd use their empathy and social skills competencies to enhance their own transformational leadership. Therefore, the challenge for a contemporary organization is to enhance the emotional intelligence of their managers. A

79、ppropriate interventions may be needed to enhance their social competencies that would involve education and specific job-related training (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Goleman, 1998). Managers should also be encoura<

80、/p><p>　　Education and training may be of limited value when it comes to improving supervisors' EQ. Organizations may have to adapt the policy of recruiting managers with vision and charisma who are likely

81、 to be high on EQ. There should also be appropriate changes in the organization design that would require creating flatter, decentralized, and less complex structures. Also there should be appropriate changes in organiz

82、ational culture that provides rewards for learning new competence—empathy and socia</p><p>　　Directions for Future Research</p><p>　　Further research is needed to enhance our understanding of th

83、e relationships of EQ to effectiveness of leader behaviors. Other criterion variables for future research include subordinates' learning and effectiveness, intent to leave a job, and organizational commitment. An imp

84、ortant area of future research concerns carefully designing and evaluating the effects of training in EQ in enhancing the aforementioned criterion variables. Field experiments are particularly useful in evaluating the ef

85、fec</p><h5>　　Strengths and Limitations</h2><p>　　One of the strengths of this study is that the independent and dependent variables were collected from separate respondents, which will overcome

86、 the problem of common method variance. The presence of common method variance may inflate correlations between independent and criterion variables. Limitations of this field study should be noted. Data were collected fr

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