國際法條約和其他法律淵源對於使用武力設(shè)立了很多限制

1、1,Treaties and other sources of IL impose so many restrictions on use of force that it is generally illegal國際法條約和其他法律淵源對於使用武力設(shè)立了很多限制, 在一般情況下使用武力是不合法的Most armed conflicts are now civil and not international wars大部分武裝衝

2、突是國內(nèi)而不是國際戰(zhàn)爭,The Use of Force武力運(yùn)用,2,St. Augustine (4th C.) set out doctrine of just wars聖奧斯丁﹝四世紀(jì)﹞主張正義戰(zhàn)爭論1. Just war waged against party that has caused injury and refuses to make amends正義戰(zhàn)爭反擊造成了傷害和拒絕改正的一方2. Just wa

3、r is to only be punitive; when wrong is righted, war must end正義戰(zhàn)爭只是懲罰性的，當(dāng)錯誤得到糾正，戰(zhàn)爭必須停止St. Thomas Acquinas (13th C.) held that is wrongdoer, not wrongdoing that is to punished托馬斯·阿奎那﹝十三世紀(jì)﹞認(rèn)為受到懲罰的應(yīng)該是錯者而不是錯行本身,3,Wa

4、r could go on after wrong is righted, until wrongdoer repents戰(zhàn)爭可在錯誤糾正之後繼續(xù)，直至錯者悔改Just war is waged by sovereign, punishes the wrongdoer and is motivated by good intentions正義戰(zhàn)爭由主權(quán)出於善意而發(fā)動，用於懲罰錯者 In Renaissance, thinke

5、rs urged that negotiations precede resort to force在文藝復(fù)興時期，思想家要求訴諸武力之前要進(jìn)行談判Vitoria argued that not every wrong is sufficient cause for war維多利亞認(rèn)為並不是每個錯誤都是發(fā)動戰(zhàn)爭的充分原因,4,Suarez held that wronged state must first demand rep

6、aratationsSuarez說受犯國必須首先要求賠償Innocent parties should be immune from attack無辜者應(yīng)該免受攻擊Only proportionate force should be used只可酌量使用武力,5,Grotius said just wars involve格老秀斯說正義戰(zhàn)爭包括1. self-defense自衛(wèi)2. protection of p

7、roperty財產(chǎn)保護(hù)3.punishment for those who have harmed other state‘s citizens懲罰那些傷害其他國家公民的人Neutrality to be determined not by state's morality, but by whether there was actual state of war中立不是決定於國家的德性，而是是否真正存在戰(zhàn)爭狀態(tài),6

8、,Later, states adopted some other means to show displeasure, e.g.後來，國家採納了一些其他方法來表示不快 例如1. suspension of diplomatic relations外交關(guān)係的中止2. withdrawal from treaty撤銷條約3. cancellation of membership in international orga

9、nization取消國際組織的成員身份4. economic boycott經(jīng)濟(jì)制裁,7,After World War I, disputes were supposed to be submitted to arbitration, judicial settlement or inquiry by League第一次世界大戰(zhàn)後，認(rèn)為爭議應(yīng)當(dāng)通過仲裁、 司法或國際聯(lián)盟調(diào)查等途徑來處理States were suppos

10、ed to refrain from war for three months after arbitration, settlement or report 國家在仲裁、司法或調(diào)查報告之後三個月內(nèi)應(yīng)當(dāng)克制戰(zhàn)爭1928 General Treaty for the Renunciation of War (Kellogg-Briand Pact)1928年《非戰(zhàn)公約》(《白裏安--凱洛哥公約》),8,Article 2(4) o

11、f United Nations Charter: states are to refrain from threat or use of force against territorial integrity or independence of other states聯(lián)合國憲章第2條第4項規(guī)定：國家不應(yīng)當(dāng)運(yùn)用武力或以武力相威脅，破壞其它國家的領(lǐng)土完整或獨(dú)立Still many question of when force c

12、an be legally used武力何時可以合法地使用存在很多爭議For example, is “economic force” lawful?舉例，「經(jīng)濟(jì)武力」是否合法What is force used against "territorial integrity, etc."?什麼是破壞「領(lǐng)土完整」的武力等,9,There are some lawful uses of force有一些合

13、法的武力運(yùn)用Retortion: retaliation for a noxious act by a noxious act, for example反報：例如以惡治惡1. severing of diplomatic relationsas retaliation終止外交關(guān)係以作報復(fù)2. restrictions on movements with State A of citizens of State B限制

14、國家乙國民在國家甲的活動3.suspension of foreign aid as retaliation for nationalizations停止外國援助以報復(fù)國有化,10,4.non-economic boycotts, e.g. Olympic boycotts of 1980, 1984 非經(jīng)濟(jì)制裁，例如1980年和1984年的奧林匹克聯(lián)合抵制5. trade restrictions by A, follow

15、ing trade restrictions by B國家甲的貿(mào)易限制引發(fā)國家乙的貿(mào)易限制Reprisal: normally illegal act of State B, when done in retaliation for illegal act of State A, becomes legal報復(fù)：一般來說，國家乙以不法行為回應(yīng)國家甲的不法行為，便會視為合法,11,Olympic boycotts,12,Retor

16、sion involves normally legal acts; reprisal involves normally illegal acts通常説來，反報涉及到合法行為；報復(fù)涉及到不法行為Reprisal, unlike war, is limited interference by one state with rights of another state不同于戰(zhàn)爭，報復(fù)是一個國家有權(quán)對另一國家進(jìn)行有限干預(yù)。In

17、 Nalilaa Incident Arbitration (1928), German forces in Africa raided Portugese colony of Angola in retaliation for mistaken killing of Germans there. Portugal demanded compensation.在Nalilaa事件仲裁案中(1928)，為報復(fù)德人被誤殺，德國在非洲的軍

18、隊侵略在安高拉的葡國殖民地。葡國要求賠償,13,Tribunal held that before reprisal法庭認(rèn)為報復(fù)前1. must be previous unlawful act 必須發(fā)生了不法行為2. must be unsatisfied demand for compensation必須是不滿意賠償3. reprisal must be carried out in proportion to

19、offence.報復(fù)必須與受侵犯比例相符Under Article 2(4) of UN Charter, reprisals with force law only if carried out as self-defense根據(jù)聯(lián)合國憲章第2條第4項，有效武力報仇只可以在自衛(wèi)的情況下運(yùn)用,14,Some scholars say reprisal only lawful if motivated by desire to e

20、nd unlawful conduct of other state一些學(xué)者說報復(fù)只有以終止其他國家的不法行動為動機(jī)才算是合法Reprisals now often carried out through economic means: embargos, boycotts, freezing of assets, export-import controls.現(xiàn)在報復(fù)經(jīng)常是透過經(jīng)濟(jì)途徑：禁運(yùn)、抵制購買、 凍結(jié)財產(chǎn)、出入口管制

21、Pacific blockade to coerce state對專制國家進(jìn)行和平封鎖,15,Pacific blockade can be undertaken only against ships of blockaded state; can be specific (Cuba) or general (Iraq)和平封鎖只可用來對待被封鎖國的船隻； 可以是特定的﹝古巴﹞或一般的﹝伊拉克﹞Self-defense ava

22、ilable where unlawful act committed by other side or (maybe) where lawful act of State B would ruin State A自衛(wèi)發(fā)生於當(dāng)另一方做了不法行動或（也許）國家乙的合法行為將會損害國家甲的時候Difference between self-defense and retorsion and reprisal:自衛(wèi)和反報與報復(fù)的分別在

23、於,16,Retorsion and reprisal can involve act not directly related to act of offending state反報與報復(fù)可涉及與侵犯國行為無直接關(guān)係的行為Self defense aims directly against interference of another state自衛(wèi)是針對另一國家的直接干擾Caroline incident (1837)

24、 set ruleCaroline事件(1837)設(shè)立了規(guī)則British forces enter US and destroy ship after it is used by Americans to raid Canada軍艦被美國人用來襲擊加拿大之後，英國軍隊進(jìn)入美國將其擊毀,17,US complained. Said美國投訴說1. right of self-defense must be in respo

25、nse to act that is immediate and overwhelming, leaving no other choice自衛(wèi)必須用於回應(yīng)迅速而毀滅性的行為，此外別無選擇2. action in self-defense must not be excessive自衛(wèi)的行動不可過份Article 51 of UN Charter allows self-defense if armed attack occ

26、urs聯(lián)合國憲章第51條容許在面對武裝攻擊時自衛(wèi),18,Still unclear, however:但是依然含糊不清：1. what kind of actions allow for self-defense哪些類型的行動容許自衛(wèi)？2. what kind of rights states can defend國家可以捍衛(wèi)哪些權(quán)利？3. how much force is proportional多少武力才是合

27、乎比例？4. time of defense in retaliation報復(fù)中自衛(wèi)的時間,19,Question of pre-emptive self-defense especially difficult先發(fā)制人的自衛(wèi)問題更難界定In Nicaragua Case (ICJ 1986) took up this question of whether State A can launch war in anticip

28、ation of aggression by State B在尼加拉瓜案﹝國際法院1986年﹞中，提出了這樣的問題，即國家甲可否因預(yù)計將受到國家乙侵略而發(fā)動戰(zhàn)爭US had mined Nicaragua‘s harbors supposedly to prevent Nicaragua from supplying El Salvador rebels美國損毀尼加拉瓜的港口, 以防尼加拉瓜支持薩爾瓦多的叛亂者,20,Nicar

29、agua Harbor,21,Court held: not pre-emptive self-defense because no imminent threat of attack on El Salvador, let alone on US法庭認(rèn)為：這並非先發(fā)制人的自衛(wèi)，因為薩爾瓦多並沒有即將受到[叛亂者]的攻擊威脅，美國更加沒有受到威脅Question of whether state may use force to

30、protect nationals and property abroad究竟國家可否使用武力保護(hù)海外國民和財產(chǎn),22,Before World War II, 第二次世界大戰(zhàn)前1. war was a conflict between two or more states using armies戰(zhàn)爭是兩國或多國之間使用軍隊的衝突2. war had as its purpose, one side vanquishin

31、g the other and imposing terms of peace.如同其目標(biāo)，戰(zhàn)爭中一方摧毀了另一方並強(qiáng)加和平條款3. war was what followed a declaration of war戰(zhàn)爭發(fā)生在宣戰(zhàn)以後Since World War II, however, no declarations of war自第二次大戰(zhàn)，便再沒有宣戰(zhàn)了,23,Question whether war is an

32、 action or a status問題是究竟戰(zhàn)爭是一個行動或是一種狀態(tài)As an action, war ends when states no longer fight如果是一個行動，戰(zhàn)爭在國家不再戰(zhàn)鬥時結(jié)束Kawaski case (UK 1938) considered word “war” in shipping contractKawaski案﹝1938﹞考慮了船約中的「戰(zhàn)爭」 Held: UK ship

33、 did not have to carry cargo to China after Japanese invasion, even though Japan didn't declare war判決認(rèn)為：英國船隻在日本侵華後不須再運(yùn)貨到中國，即使日本沒有宣戰(zhàn),24,If war is an action, then its existence depends on:如果戰(zhàn)爭是一個行動，它的存在視乎：1. dimens

34、ions of conflict爭執(zhí)的層面2. intention of contestants參戰(zhàn)者的目的3. attitude of non-contestants非參戰(zhàn)者的態(tài)度War as status shown by continued state of war between Japan and Russia日俄之間持續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭表明了戰(zhàn)爭是一種狀態(tài),25,Question if war must invol

35、ve force問題是戰(zhàn)爭是否必須使用武力Half of countries that declared war during WWII never fought一半在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)中宣戰(zhàn)的國家從來沒有參與戰(zhàn)鬥Study armed conflict, not war now現(xiàn)在研究的是武裝衝突，而不是戰(zhàn)爭Formerly, colonial powers could use force to crush indepe

36、ndence struggles; now states cannot早前，殖民勢力可使用武力粉碎爭取獨(dú)立的抗?fàn)?；現(xiàn)在的國家不可以,26,But can people seeking self-determination lawfully use force?但人們可否合法使用武力尋求自決Under 1977 Additional Protocol, Geneva Convention of 1949, protecting p

37、risoners of war and civilians in wartime applies to some self-determination armed struggles根據(jù)1949年《日內(nèi)瓦公約》的《附加議定書》 (1977年)，保護(hù)戰(zhàn)時的戰(zhàn)犯和平民適用於一些尋求自決的武裝抗?fàn)嶲uestion whether 3d party can help people fighting for self-determinati

38、on問題是第三者可否幫助人們爭取自決,27,Some UN resolutions have said so; some scholars argue that aid can only be provided to established government against rebels 一些聯(lián)合國決議允許這樣；有些學(xué)者認(rèn)為援助只應(yīng)提供給現(xiàn)存政府用以鎮(zhèn)壓叛亂Under Geneva Convention of 1949, e

39、nemy national can usually leave territory of a state at war根據(jù)1949年《日內(nèi)瓦公約》 ，敵國國民通?？梢噪x開處于戰(zhàn)爭的國家Only can intern enemy nationals只可拘留敵國公民During war, aliens are enemies on basis of nationality, not residence在戰(zhàn)爭時期，敵人是依國藉而

40、非居留地定義的外國人,28,But, as to corporations, may have enemy character if those who control it reside in enemy country但是，就團(tuán)體來說，便因其領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人居住於敵國可能具有敵人特征State may, within its territory, confiscate movable property of government of

41、enemy state 國家可能在其領(lǐng)土內(nèi)沒收敵國政府的動產(chǎn)Immovable state property can be used, but not confiscated敵國的不動產(chǎn)可被使用，但不可被沒收Private property in occupied territory may be sequestered, but not confiscated.私產(chǎn)在被佔據(jù)國家的領(lǐng)土內(nèi)可被扣押，但不是被沒收,29,Mus

42、t only be taken for military use必只可用作軍事用途W(wǎng)hen armed conflict starts, some treaties between warring states nulled; some are suspended; some remain in force 當(dāng)武裝衝突開始，一些戰(zhàn)爭國之間的條約會無效、一些會被暫緩、一些則仍有效subjective test of inten

43、tion of parties toward treaties during war在戰(zhàn)爭時，對締約國條約意向的主觀性測試,30,objective test: compatibility of treaty with wartime客觀測試：條約和戰(zhàn)時的兼容性1. treaties of alliance abrogated聯(lián)盟條約的終止2. treaties fixing boundaries or on conduc

44、t of war remaining in force劃定邊界或戰(zhàn)爭操守的條約仍然生效3. treaties on health, drugs, industrial property, extradition, etc. are suspended有關(guān)健康、藥品、工業(yè)資產(chǎn)和引渡等的條約被中止,31,Two kinds of combatants兩種的戰(zhàn)鬥者1. Lawful -- may be killed, woun

45、ded, captured.合法的─可能被殺、被傷、被俘獲Spies can be shot間諜可能被槍殺2. Unlawful -- e.g. murderers, traitors and mercenaries may be punished by military tribunal不合法的─例如謀殺者、叛徒和外國僱傭兵可能被軍事法院懲罰Merchant seamen can be attacked; civil

46、ians working in military factories can be bombed商人海員可能被襲擊；在軍工廠工作的平民可能被轟炸,32,Hague Convention of 1907 held that only military objectives can be bombed 1907年《海牙公約》認(rèn)為只有軍事目標(biāo)才可以被轟炸Also banned using poisons in war同時亦禁止在戰(zhàn)爭

47、中使用毒藥Geneva Convention of 1949 called for hospital, safety and netural zones for sick, aged, children, wounded, civilians generally 1949年《日內(nèi)瓦公約》要求設(shè)立醫(yī)院、安全的中立區(qū)給病人、老人、兒童、傷者和一般百姓Many anti-nuclear weapons treaties, multi

48、lateral and bi-lateral 有很多反核武器條約，包括多邊的和雙邊的,33,Humanitarian law binding on individuals, including civilian leaders人道主義法律對包括平民領(lǐng)袖在內(nèi)的個人都有約束力International Law Commission has Draft Code of Offences Against Peace and Securi

49、ty of Mankind (1954)國際法委員會制定了《危害人類和平及安全治罪法草案》 （1954年）UN treaty calls for no statute of limitations on war crimes charges聯(lián)合國條約要求對戰(zhàn)爭罪行控訴沒有限制法規(guī)Order of superiors or obedience to national law no defense to war crimes

50、charges, if moral choice was possible如果可能存在道德選擇，上級的命令或?qū)鴥?nèi)法的服從都不能成為免受戰(zhàn)爭罪行指控的理由,34,Yamashita Case -- failure to control subordinates equivalent to consent to their war crimesYamashita案─未能成功控制下屬等于默許他們的戰(zhàn)爭罪行Under Hague Co

51、nvention, if state violates laws of war, it must pay compensation根據(jù)《海牙公約》，如果國家違反戰(zhàn)爭法律，它必須要作出賠償 treat rebels as criminals將背叛者作為罪犯 But if rebels treated as insurgents, have protection of humanitarian law但是如果背叛者被待作造反者

52、，便會有人道主義法律作保護(hù),35,Hostages may still be taken in war在戰(zhàn)爭中可能有人質(zhì)Under Geneva Convention, humanitarian law applied to armed resistance groups, militias and other irregulars if they are根據(jù)《日內(nèi)瓦公約》，人道主義法律適用於武裝反抗組織、國民自衛(wèi)隊和其他非正規(guī)

53、軍，如果他們1. commanded by responsible person由富責(zé)任感的人負(fù)責(zé)指揮2. have fixed sign有既定標(biāo)符3. carry arms openly公開攜帶武器4. fight according to laws of war依戰(zhàn)爭法而作戰(zhàn),36,Under 1977 Protocol, humanitarian law applied to armed forces in or

54、ganized units under effective command that apply laws of war根據(jù)1977年議定書，人道主義法律適用於採用戰(zhàn)爭法、受有效指揮的、有組織的武裝部隊Combatants must distinguish their dress from civilians during military operations or at least openly carry arms duri

55、ng battle戰(zhàn)士在軍事行動中必須在衣飾上與平民相區(qū)別出來或最少在戰(zhàn)爭時明顯地佩帶武器POWs protected from violence, intimidation, insults and public curiosityPOWs受保護(hù)以免於暴力、恐嚇、誨辱和公眾好奇,37,POWs need only tell name, rank, serial numberPOWs祗需識別姓名、級別、編號Cultural

56、 objects and places of worship protected under Hague Convention of 1954文物和聖地是受 1954年 《海牙公約》所保護(hù)So are objects needed for survival of civilians平民賴以為生的物品亦都受到保護(hù),38,Certain weapons banned, e.g. gas, under 1925 Geneva Prot

57、ocol依據(jù)1925年《日內(nèi)瓦議定書》，有些武器是被禁的，例如毒氣1981 Conventional Weapons Treaty Protocols prohibit using mines, incendiary devices against civilians 1981年《慣常武器公約議定書》禁止對平民使用地雷和縱火裝置Also banned attacks on natural environment同樣，禁止破

58、壞自然環(huán)境Applies to internal conflicts where rebels control some territory, but not to “riots”適用於內(nèi)部衝突，當(dāng)叛變分子而非‘暴徒’控制了部分領(lǐng)土,39,Protecting power can look after interests of nationals of one party保護(hù)力量可以照顧一方國民的利益1981 Convent

59、ion provides for International Fact-Finding Commission to examine breaches of laws of armed conflict1981年公約提出了「國際事實調(diào)查委員會」以考察違反武裝衝突法律的情況An armed conflict may end when fighting stops, without any understanding reached武

60、裝衝突因戰(zhàn)鬥停止而結(jié)束，無論是否達(dá)成諒解,40,War may end by conquest and annexation戰(zhàn)爭可因佔領(lǐng)和兼併而終止War may end by peace treaty戰(zhàn)爭可因和平條約而終止Peace treaty usually covers territory, repatriation of prisoners, indemnities, etc.和平條約通常包括領(lǐng)土、罪犯遣返、賠償

61、等If particular property not covered by peace treaty, then rule uti posidetis applies如和平條約未能涉及特別的財產(chǎn)，就會使用「佔領(lǐng)地保有原則」,41,Can be agreement to end war that is not peace treaty終止戰(zhàn)爭的協(xié)議可以不是和約Armistice may end hostilities and