全國優(yōu)秀教育碩士專業(yè)學(xué)位論文情感與英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)

1、<p>　　附件二：全國優(yōu)秀教育碩士專業(yè)學(xué)位論文</p><p><b>　　推薦表</b></p><p>　　單位名稱： 福建師范大學(xué) 填表日期：2008年12月1日</p><p>　　說明：學(xué)科專業(yè)方向包括教育管理、教育技術(shù)、小學(xué)教育和學(xué)科教學(xué)，其中學(xué)科教學(xué)要說明具體方向，如學(xué)科教學(xué)（數(shù)學(xué)）。本表可復(fù)印

2、、附頁。</p><p>　　學(xué)校編號 1 0 3 9 4　　　　　　　　　　 　　圖書分類號：</p><p>　　學(xué)　　號 JS02159 　　　　　　　　　 　　密 級：</p><p>　　?！〗ā煛》丁〈蟆W(xué)</p><p>　　教 育 碩 士 學(xué) 位 論 文</p><p><b>

3、　　情感與英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)</b></p><p>　　Emotion and English Vocabulary Learning</p><p><b>　　毛浩然</b></p><p>　　學(xué)科專業(yè)方向：學(xué)科教學(xué)（英語）</p><p>　　指 導(dǎo) 教 師 ：李榮寶教授</p><p

4、>　　申請學(xué)位級別：教育碩士</p><p>　　論文提交日期：2005年8月25日</p><p><b>　　論文評閱人：</b></p><p>　　論文答辯日期：2005年10月29日</p><p>　　答辯委員會主席：林大津教授</p><p>　　學(xué)位授予單位：福建師范大學(xué)&l

5、t;/p><p>　　學(xué)位授予日期：2005年12月</p><p><b>　　2005年8月</b></p><p><b>　　情感與英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)</b></p><p>　　【摘　要】認(rèn)知研究表明，當(dāng)認(rèn)知和情感兼顧時，學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)能力就能得到最充分的發(fā)揮。近年來語言學(xué)習(xí)方面的研究也證實(shí)了情感在詞

6、匯學(xué)習(xí)中不可忽視的作用。隨著我國英語教學(xué)研究的不斷發(fā)展，英語詞匯教學(xué)和英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)策略研究在國內(nèi)備受關(guān)注；但對于情感同漢語學(xué)習(xí)者英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的關(guān)系的研究卻少之又少。本研究旨在探討情感對英語詞匯記憶的可能影響。研究通過向正在完成詞匯記憶任務(wù)的被試呈現(xiàn)無情感刺激、積極情感刺激和消極情感刺激三種圖片，比較被試的記憶維持情況。實(shí)驗(yàn)表明：一、記憶過程中，當(dāng)記憶對象與某種情緒刺激聯(lián)系時將影響記憶維持；二、適度的焦慮或其它消極性刺激情緒狀態(tài)，對記憶詞

7、匯有促進(jìn)作用；三、過于輕松悠閑的情緒狀態(tài)反而不利于記憶的鞏固和維持。</p><p>　　【關(guān)鍵詞】情感，詞匯，英語，學(xué)習(xí)</p><p>　　Emotion and English Vocabulary Learning </p><p>　　【Abstract】Most experts are agreed that emotion is the basic n

8、eed of human beings, that cognition and emotion are inseparable, and that learners’ proficiency is fulfilled to the largest extent when both cognition and emotion are involved. With regard to language learning, the funct

9、ion of emotion in vocabulary learning has been confirmed by more and more researches in the past decades. But little has been done to study such function of emotion in vocabulary learning by Chinese learners learning En&

10、lt;/p><p>　　【Key Words】Emotion, Vocabulary, English, Learning</p><p><b>　　情感與英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)</b></p><p>　　二十世紀(jì)六十年代以來，隨著人文主義心理學(xué)的興起，情感的作用在心理學(xué)、教育學(xué)和語言學(xué)領(lǐng)域引起了廣泛的關(guān)注。研究顯示，情感是人類的基本需求；認(rèn)知與情感是不

11、可分的，當(dāng)認(rèn)知與情感同時起作用時，學(xué)生才能更好地發(fā)揮他們的能力。目前，二語習(xí)得研究的重點(diǎn)已經(jīng)從教師如何教轉(zhuǎn)到了學(xué)生如何學(xué)，人們越來越意識到二語習(xí)得的成功與否在很大程度上取決于學(xué)習(xí)者的情感因素。西方學(xué)者在這一領(lǐng)域進(jìn)行了大量研究并取得了豐碩的成果。近年來，我國的外語課程設(shè)置開始接受人文主義的情感教育觀。國內(nèi)的學(xué)者對這一問題也有了一定的認(rèn)識，但在教學(xué)實(shí)踐中尚未給予足夠的重視，主要表現(xiàn)在兩個方面：一是重視知識和智力的發(fā)展，忽視情感發(fā)展；二是忽視

12、情感與認(rèn)知之間不可分割的關(guān)系。</p><p>　　隨著《英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》的全面實(shí)施，情感因素得到更多的關(guān)注。情感因素指興趣、動機(jī)、自信、意志和合作精神以及語言焦慮，缺乏自信等。情感因素不但影響語言學(xué)習(xí)和教育本身，同時也影響到學(xué)生的人格發(fā)展。在英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)過程中，學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)動機(jī)和學(xué)習(xí)興趣是否得到有效的激發(fā)和培養(yǎng)，學(xué)生的身心是否處于最佳狀態(tài)，學(xué)生是否能體驗(yàn)到學(xué)習(xí)進(jìn)步和成功的喜悅，學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)中是否懂得自我激勵、自我監(jiān)控

13、、自我調(diào)整，等等，對英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)都有著舉足輕重的影響，但這些因素未能引起教師的充分重視。</p><p>　　Wilkins(1972)指出：“沒有語法不能很好地表達(dá)，而沒有詞匯則什么也不能表達(dá)?！痹~匯能力(1exical competence)是語言能力發(fā)展的核心?！镀胀ǜ咧杏⒄Z課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》八級的語言知識目標(biāo)中對詞匯的描述是：學(xué)會使用3300個左右的單詞和400—500個習(xí)慣用語或固定搭配。高中合格畢業(yè)生的詞匯水

14、平已經(jīng)基本上相當(dāng)于大學(xué)英語四級水平?！队⒄Z課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》的詞匯量要求遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超出原中學(xué)英語教學(xué)大綱所規(guī)定的1800個單詞的詞匯量要求，英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的重要性和學(xué)習(xí)者所面臨的嚴(yán)峻挑戰(zhàn)由此可見一斑。而目前的英語詞匯教學(xué)的研究還較少涉及動機(jī)、情感、興趣、態(tài)度等非智力因素方面。</p><p>　　本研究通過實(shí)驗(yàn)，旨在探討積極情感和消極情感對英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的影響。全文除引言和結(jié)論外，包括四個章節(jié)。</p><p&

15、gt;　　第一章闡述了情感、學(xué)習(xí)和記憶的定義，綜述了前人有關(guān)情感、學(xué)習(xí)、記憶、大腦、遺忘等方面的研究成果，論述了學(xué)習(xí)和記憶、情感和學(xué)習(xí)、情感和記憶之間的關(guān)系以及情感在學(xué)習(xí)和記憶中的主要作用。</p><p>　　第二章闡述了積極情感和消極情感對英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的影響，分析了目前詞匯學(xué)習(xí)日益受到關(guān)注的原因和誤區(qū)，論述了情感個體因素特別是焦慮水平對詞匯記憶的影響。認(rèn)知研究表明，當(dāng)認(rèn)知和情感兼顧時，學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)能力就能得到

16、最充分的發(fā)揮。近年來語言學(xué)習(xí)方面的研究也證實(shí)了情感在詞匯學(xué)習(xí)中不可忽視的作用。隨著我國英語教學(xué)事業(yè)的不斷發(fā)展，英語詞匯教學(xué)和英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)策略研究在國內(nèi)備受關(guān)注；但對于情感同漢語學(xué)習(xí)者英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的關(guān)系的研究卻少之又少。本研究旨在探討情感對英語詞匯記憶的可能影響。</p><p>　　第三章以46位大學(xué)英語預(yù)備班學(xué)生為實(shí)驗(yàn)研究對象，以PowerPoint為呈現(xiàn)手段，將中性圖片（黑白正方體）、積極圖片（浪漫、美景、鮮

17、花）和消極圖片（恐怖、戰(zhàn)爭、死亡）有規(guī)律地夾雜在大學(xué)英語更高要求詞匯中向正在完成詞匯記憶任務(wù)的被試定時呈現(xiàn)后進(jìn)行詞匯記憶測試來比較被試的記憶維持情況，以研究積極情感和消極情感對英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)是否存在顯著差異。實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明：一、記憶過程中，當(dāng)記憶對象與某種情緒刺激聯(lián)系時將影響記憶維持；二、適度的焦慮或其它消極性刺激情緒狀態(tài)，對記憶詞匯有促進(jìn)作用；三、過于輕松悠閑的情緒狀態(tài)反而不利于記憶的鞏固和維持。</p><p>

18、　　第四章對第三章的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果展開討論。人們通常認(rèn)為，當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者處于一種愜意的情緒或非常放松的狀態(tài)下，記憶的效果最好，但是實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果出乎我們的意料，不愜意的，甚至緊張的情緒有助于記憶。這可能是由記憶過程本身的特征所導(dǎo)致的，即刺激的強(qiáng)度和新奇性。實(shí)驗(yàn)的結(jié)論對詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的啟示是：1. 在詞匯學(xué)習(xí)中，如何建立詞匯與新奇刺激的聯(lián)系。2. 如何使學(xué)生在詞匯學(xué)習(xí)時保持適度的焦慮水平。本章論述了情感影響英語詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的幾種途徑、情感和記憶之間的關(guān)系、詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的

19、難點(diǎn)、改善詞匯學(xué)習(xí)的途徑以及本研究的局限性和繼續(xù)研究的建議。</p><p><b>　　Contents</b></p><p>　　Chinese Abstract…………………………………………….……………...I</p><p>　　Abstract…………………………………………………………………….II</p>&l

20、t;p>　　Chinese Synopsis…..……………………………………………………..III</p><p>　　Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 1</p><p>　　Chapter One Emotion and Its Relation with Learning and Memory...4</p><

21、;p>　　1.1 Three Basic Terms…………....………………………………..…...5</p><p>　　1.1.1 Emotion ……………………………..………………………...5</p><p>　　1.1.2 Learning……………………………………………………….5</p><p>　　1.1.3 Memory………………

22、………………………………………..7</p><p>　　1.2 Learning and Memory………………..………….……………..…8</p><p>　　1.2.1 Brain and Memory…………………………………………….8</p><p>　　1.2.2 Forgetting ……………………………………………………11</p&g

23、t;<p>　　1.3 Emotion and Learning …………………………………………...13</p><p>　　1.4 Emotion and Memory………………………………. .…………..18</p><p>　　1.4.1 The Effect of Emotional Content…………………………… 19</p><p

24、>　　1.4.2 The Effect of Mood ………………………………………….20</p><p>　　1.4.3 The Relationship Between Emotion and Attention…………..22</p><p>　　1.4.4 Ways Emotions Affect Memory……………………………...22</p><

25、;p>　　1.4.5 Age and Gender Differences…………………………………23</p><p>　　1.5 The Roles for Emotion in Learning and Memory………………25</p><p>　　1.5.1 Emotional Data………………………………………………25</p><p>　　

26、1.5.2 Emotion as a Source of Clutter………………………………25</p><p>　　1.5.3 Emotion and Feedback from One’s Own Use of the Language</p><p>　　…………………………………………………………………….28</p><p>　　1.5.4 Emoti

27、on and Playback from Other’s Use of the Language….31</p><p>　　1.5.5 Emotion and the Use of What One Knows…………………..32</p><p>　　Chapter Two The Learner’s Negative and Positive Emotion and Its<

28、/p><p>　　Implications for Vocabulary Learning ………………...33</p><p>　　2.1 Exploring the Learner’s Negative and Positive Emotion………33</p><p>　　2.2 The Importance of Vocabulary……………………………….

29、….36</p><p>　　2.3 Reasons for the Present Emphasis on Vocabulary Individual </p><p>　　Factors………………………….……. ……………….………..…38</p><p>　　2.4 Individual Factors……………………………….…. …………....39

30、</p><p>　　2.5 Hypothesis…………………………….……. …….…………..…..41</p><p>　　Chapter Three Experiment……………………………….………..…42</p><p>　　3.1 Method…………………….…………….……. ……….……..…42</p><p>

31、　　3.1.1 Design …………………………………………….……..…42</p><p>　　3.1.2 Subjects…………………………………………………..…42</p><p>　　3.1.3 Materials …………….……...…….……………………..…42</p><p>　　3.1.4 Procedures …………………………………

32、..…………..…42</p><p>　　3.2 Result.…………………………. ….….……..………………..…43</p><p>　　Chapter Four Discussion ……………….……..……………………...46</p><p>　　4.1 The Association of Emotional Pictures and Voc

33、abulary</p><p>　　Memorization …………….….….……..……………………..…46</p><p>　　4.2 Possible Ways Emotions Affect Learning…………….…..……46</p><p>　　4.3 The Relation Between Emotion and Memory ……………

34、.…..46</p><p>　　4.3.1 Emotion and Implicit Memory ………………....………….46</p><p>　　4.3.2 Memory, Arousal, and Mood: A Theoretical Integration……47</p><p>　　4.3.3 The Implications of Arousa

35、l Effects for the Study of Emotion </p><p>　　and Memory……………………….……………………....48</p><p>　　4.3.4 Emotion, Arousal, and Memory for Detail………………...49</p><p>　　4.3.5 The Influence of Emo

36、tion on Memory: Mechanism and</p><p>　　Development………………………………………………49</p><p>　　4.3.6 Biological Aspects of Memory, Emotion and Cognition……50</p><p>　　4.4 The Difficulties of Learni

37、ng a word …………….. …………....53</p><p>　　4.5 Ways to Improve Vocabulary Memory…………………….…..54</p><p>　　4.6 Limitations of the Study…………………………..…….………57</p><p>　　4.7 Suggestions for Furt

38、her Research……………….……………..57</p><p>　　4.7.1 Learning Styles and Emotion……………….……….……..57</p><p>　　4.7.2 Fear and Emotional Memory……………………….……...59</p><p>　　4.7.3 Storing Emotional M

39、emory…………………………….….60</p><p>　　Conclusion…………………………………………….………………...63</p><p>　　Bibliography……………………………………………………………64</p><p>　　Appendix…………………………………………………………….….73</p><p&

40、gt;　　福建師范大學(xué)學(xué)位論文使用授權(quán)聲明…………………………….….78</p><p>　　Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………79</p><p>　　Introduction</p><p>　　In 2001, the National English Curriculum Standard, a new Englis

41、h course syllabus, was issued. It has set a higher requirement for students, who are supposed to have a vocabulary of 4,000 words upon graduation from high school, while the requirement in the previous course syllabus wa

42、s only 2,000 words. The increase of vocabulary by 2,000 words will certainly impose a new challenge on English learners in their vocabulary learning in middle schools. </p><p>　　In some colleges and universi

43、ties, passing College English Test (CET) Band Four is still the precondition for their students to graduate with diplomas, an indication that they have received college education with one of its key requirements satisfac

44、torily met. The increasingly high demand on students has in turn put English learning in a crucial position. </p><p>　　Many students have a small size of vocabulary though they have learned English for years

45、. Vocabulary plays an irreplaceable role in English learning. However, its low efficiency and unsatisfactory effects cannot adequately meet students’ needs. This problem can be, at least in part, attributed to the neglig

46、ence of students’ emotional variables in the process of vocabulary learning. Fortunately, more and more researchers and instructors at home and abroad in the fields of psychology, education, a</p><p>　　Curre

47、ntly, the fruitful research on emotional variables in the West has shed light on the research in China, but it has not attracted enough attention. Inadequate exploration in this field, especially in vocabulary learning,

48、has inevitably led to the present situation of inefficient and ineffective vocabulary learning.</p><p>　　In view of this situation and the complexity of emotional factors, the author intends to focus on the

49、positive and negative emotion in vocabulary learning. This thesis sums up the previous and current research in the emotional domain and appeals for people’s attention to one of the most pervasive factors—anxiety, which i

50、s believed to be one of the most important factors in this aspect. Inspired by the fruitful western research results in emotion, the author attempts to explore the effect of posi</p><p>　　This paper, apart f

51、rom this Introduction and a Conclusion, consists of the following four chapters. </p><p>　　Chapter One, Emotion and Its Relation with Learning and Memory, reviews the previous researches and findings made by

52、 experts, as both an illumination for attention to emotion in the process of vocabulary learning and a theoretical reference for further exploration. This chapter presents a general review of emotion studies, covering th

53、e definition of emotion, learning, memory and their relation with each other. </p><p>　　Chapter Two, The Learner’s Negative and Positive Emotion and Its Implication for Vocabulary Learning, elaborates on the

54、 learners’ positive and negative emotion and their proved function in vocabulary learning. The reasons for the present emphasis on vocabulary memorization are also supplied before the author puts forward a hypothesis in

55、relation to the present issue. </p><p>　　Chapter Three, Experiment, reports the experiment on the positive and negative emotion in vocabulary learning, which contains the description of research purposes, ex

56、periment design, subjects, procedures, and data analysis and results. 46 students who were to participate in the experiment were divided into two groups. Pictures of positive association and of negative association were

57、presented respectively to the two groups when they were memorizing the required word lists. Recognition task was d</p><p>　　Chapter Four, Discussion, analyzes the findings in Chapter Three. In view of the re

58、sults, the author centers on a deeper analysis and discussion of emotion in vocabulary learning. Based on others’ achievements and the present study, the author provides a list of learning strategies that help students t

59、o cope with positive and negative emotion in English vocabulary learning. In addition, the author describes students’ manifestations of English vocabulary learning, offers a summary of all the prev</p><p>　　

60、Chapter One</p><p>　　Emotion and Its Relation</p><p>　　with Learning and Memory</p><p>　　As the National English Curriculum Standard (2001) demands a greater vocabulary of 4,000 Eng

61、lish words on high school students upon their graduation, as compared with only 2,000 words in the previous course syllabus, how to help students obtain this goal has become a pressing issue. English vocabulary learning

62、is closely related to memory, and memory has a great deal to do with one’s mental or psychological states, among which emotion stands out as a very striking factor. The interaction of emot</p><p>　　Although

63、extensive research has been conducted on the brain’s role in cognition and memory, scientists have only recently begun to study the link between memory and emotions, particularly emotions such as fear and anxiety. The in

64、terdisciplinary study of nervous system function focuses on the basis of behavior. Particular emphasis is placed on three broad areas: (1) molecular or cellular fundamentals of neuronal action, (2) neural basis for sensa

65、tion and movement, and (3) higher brain function, i</p><p>　　Emotion is a term that refers to the purposive and emotional sides of a person’s reactions to what is going on. Emotion plays a very important rol

66、e in learning – that is, in the process of changing a learner’s inner resources so that they will become more useful. It does so in five ways: (1) Emotional data are stored in the same memory networks with other kinds of

67、 data, and may even be the kinds of data around which those networks are organized. (2) Emotional data may call up from long-term memo</p><p>　　1.1 Three Basic Terms</p><p>　　1.1.1 Emotion</p

68、><p>　　The word “emotion” has been used in a number of overlapping but slightly different ways in the literature on psychology. Emotion implies movement and motivation. Its survival role is to provide a bias or

69、 colouring, which will influence the selection of future actions and trigger the appropriate biochemical to set the internal scene in readiness for that action. As Fehr and Russell (1984: 464) have noted, “Everyone knows

70、 what an emotion is, until asked to give a definition.” Merriam-Webster Dicti</p><p>　　Emotion is frequently and familiarly used as synonymous with feeling. In psychology it signifies a reaction involving ce

71、rtain physiological changes, such as an accelerated or retarded pulse rate, the diminished or increased activities of certain glands, or a change in body temperature, which stimulate the individual, or some component par

72、t of his or her body, to further activity. The three primary reactions of this type are anger, love, and fear, which occur either as an immediate response to ex</p><p>　　1.1.2 Learning</p><p>　　

73、Evidence of “l(fā)earning” means showing some sort of change in how we react to what is going on around us. And how we are likely to react to language depends on a vast and incredibly complex collection of resources that hav

74、e built up over the years inside our brain. Damasio (1994:104) speaks of “dispositional representations”, which encompass both innate knowledge and knowledge acquired by experience. Therefore, learning itself – not just

75、evidence of learning but learning itself – means making some</p><p>　　Learning refers to acquiring knowledge or developing the ability to perform new behaviors. It is common to think of learning as something

76、 that takes place in school, but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and people continue to learn throughout their lives. Even before they enter school, young children learn to walk, to talk, and to use

77、their hands to manipulate toys, food, and other objects. They use all of their senses to learn about the sights, sounds, tastes, and smells in </p><p>　　Because learning continues throughout our lives and af

78、fects almost everything we do, the study of learning is important in many different fields. Teachers need to understand the best ways to educate children. Psychologists, social workers, criminologists, and other human-se

79、rvice workers need to understand how certain experiences change people’s behaviors. Employers, politicians, and advertisers make use of the principles of learning to influence the behavior of workers, voters, and consume

80、rs.</p><p>　　Learning is closely related to memory, which is the storage of information in the brain. Psychologists who study memory are interested in how the brain stores knowledge, where this storage takes

81、 place, and how the brain later retrieves knowledge when we need it. In contrast, psychologists who study learning are more interested in behavior and how behavior changes as a result of a person’s experiences.</p>

82、<p>　　1.1.3 Memory</p><p>　　Memory represents the mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experience by the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding refers to the init

83、ial perception and registration of information. Storage is the retention of encoded information over time. Retrieval refers to the processes involved in using stored information. Whenever people successfully recall a pri

84、or experience, they must have encoded, stored, and retrieved information about the experience. Conversely, m</p><p>　　Memory is critical to humans and all other living organisms. Practically all of our daily

85、 activities—talking, understanding, reading, socializing—depend on our having learned and stored information about our environments. Memory allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments ago. It enabl

86、es us to learn new skills and to form habits. Without the ability to access past experiences or information, we would be unable to comprehend language, recognize our friends and family member</p><p>　　Philos

87、ophers, psychologists, writers, and other thinkers have long been fascinated by memory. They have tried to address the following questions: How does the brain store memory? Why do people remember some bits of information

88、 but not others? Can people improve their memories? What is the capacity of memory? Memory also is frequently a subject of controversy because of questions about its accuracy. An eyewitness’s memory of a crime can play a

89、 crucial role in determining a suspect’s guilt or inno</p><p>　　Memory and learning are closely related, and the terms often describe roughly the same processes. The term learning is often used to refer to p

90、rocesses involved in the initial acquisition or encoding of information, whereas the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of information. However, this distinction is not hard and fast. After all,

91、 information is learned only when it can be retrieved later, and retrieval cannot occur unless information was learned. Thus, psychologis</p><p>　　1.2 Learning and Memory</p><p>　　Memory and lea

92、rning are closely related, and the terms often describe roughly the same processes. The term learning is often used to refer to processes involved in the initial acquisition or encoding of information, whereas the term m

93、emory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of information. However, this distinction is not hard and fast. After all, information is learned only when it can be retrieved later, and retrieval cannot occur unl

94、ess information was learned. Thus, psychologis</p><p>　　1.2.1 Brain and Memory</p><p>　　As portion of the central nervous system contained within the skull, the brain is the control center for m

95、ovement, sleep, hunger, thirst, and virtually every other vital activity necessary to survival. All human emotions, including love, hate, fear, anger, elation, and sadness, are controlled by the brain. It also receives a

96、nd interprets the countless signals that are sent to it from other parts of the body and from the external environment. The brain makes us conscious, emotional, and intellige</p><p>　　Memory serves an extrao

97、rdinary range of functions, for example, remembering autobiographical events, comprehending stories, recognizing people, learning concepts, remembering telephone numbers long enough to dial them, navigating the environme

98、nt, dancing, driving cars, solving geometry problems, learning how to plan and, most central to the topic of this book, developing affective responses such as preferences and fears. It is possible that a single, undiffer

99、entiated cognitive system accomplishe</p><p>　　Although the English language uses a single word for memory, there are actually many different kinds of it. Most theoretical models of memory distinguish three

100、main systems or types: sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory. Within each of these categories are further divisions.</p><p>　　A. Sensory Memory </p><p>　　Sensory mem

101、ory refers to the initial, momentary recording of information in our sensory systems. When sensations strike our eyes, they linger briefly in the visual system. This kind of sensory memory is called iconic memory and ref

102、ers to the usually brief visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted by the visual system. Echoic memory is the name applied to the same phenomenon in the auditory domain: the brief mental echo that pers