國際經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易 外文翻譯

1、<p><b>　　廣東工業(yè)大學(xué)</b></p><p><b>　　華立學(xué)院</b></p><p>　　本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計（論文）</p><p>　　外文參考文獻(xiàn)譯文及原文</p><p>　　系 部 外語外貿(mào)學(xué)部 </p><p>　　專

2、 業(yè) 國際經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易 </p><p>　　年 級 2008級 </p><p>　　班級名稱 08國際經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易3班 </p><p>　　學(xué) 號 16040803017 </p><p>　　學(xué)生姓名 王 濛 &l

3、t;/p><p>　　指導(dǎo)教師 </p><p>　　2012 年 4月 </p><p><b>　　目 錄</b></p><p>　　1 外文文獻(xiàn)圖片………………………………………………………………………………1</p><p>　　2 外文

4、文獻(xiàn)譯文………………………………………………………………………………6</p><p>　　3外文文獻(xiàn)原文………………………………………………………………………………12</p><p><b>　　外文文獻(xiàn)譯文</b></p><p><b>　　總結(jié)：</b></p><p>　　在最近的這幾年

5、來，貿(mào)易自由化對于國內(nèi)的影響一直受到嚴(yán)密的監(jiān)控。貿(mào)易自由化和全球化的其它方面被指責(zé)成造成美國的收入不均和歐洲的失業(yè)率的根本原因。問題的關(guān)鍵還在于低工資發(fā)展中國家的貿(mào)易。雖然經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一直都在研究這個問題,但是卻并沒有找到明確的答案。本文探討了這種模棱兩可的問題的一些原因。內(nèi)生性和同時性雖然可以產(chǎn)生主要的問題，但這引起業(yè)內(nèi)人士指責(zé)，還是應(yīng)該應(yīng)該適當(dāng)?shù)貧w因于其他因素的發(fā)展。但是即使僅僅針對貿(mào)易自身，它也有不能確定的影響。這只是在最簡單的赫克歇

6、爾-俄林理論下,批評者對貿(mào)易自由化可以預(yù)測的明確結(jié)果。</p><p><b>　　1介紹</b></p><p>　　在最近幾年來，貿(mào)易和經(jīng)濟(jì)開放一直在增長,于是各個利益集團(tuán)的獲利影響一直被爭論。低技能工人的工資和薪水在因為全球化可能引起的潛在后果，受到特別的關(guān)注。由于工業(yè)化國家與發(fā)展中低薪水國家的貿(mào)易份額得到增加，導(dǎo)致這場爭論已經(jīng)愈演愈烈。在美國以及歐洲，人們對于

7、工作，工資和生活標(biāo)準(zhǔn)時刻處于風(fēng)險當(dāng)中而感到恐懼的情況普遍存在，尤其是在和那些從底薪國家來的工人直接與直接競爭的地區(qū)尤為嚴(yán)重。</p><p>　　在經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家中，爭論集中在美國收入顯著不平等的興起和歐洲的失業(yè)率持續(xù)增加引起的貿(mào)易和技術(shù)變革的相對貢獻(xiàn)。貿(mào)易經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們傾向于應(yīng)該減少在這些發(fā)達(dá)國家的交易規(guī)則，而大量的勞動經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家則抱持著相反的意見。盡管這場爭論遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)沒有解決爭端,但是它在理論和實證兩個方面揭示了極其復(fù)雜的問

8、題。</p><p>　　第二節(jié)列出了基本問題以及在所有商品自由流通的基礎(chǔ)上交易的兩個產(chǎn)品-三個要素模型對工資和就業(yè)影響的后果。第三節(jié)部分認(rèn)為最終產(chǎn)品就是非流通股，但它的一些部件和組件可以流通，從而可以從境外進(jìn)行采購。境外采購可能涉及海上生產(chǎn)和對外直接投資。第四節(jié)探討了資本流動的影響。第五部分在講述潛在的失業(yè)問題。第六節(jié)提供了一些結(jié)論性的意見。</p><p>　　2海外采購和相對工資&l

9、t;/p><p>　　傳統(tǒng)貿(mào)易理論的奠基石之一是在因素比例在測定專業(yè)化和貿(mào)易時的作用?？鐕囊胤A賦的多樣性和跨產(chǎn)品的因素強(qiáng)度在比較優(yōu)勢的評定中占有很重要的位置。當(dāng)這些原則被應(yīng)用在同水平的產(chǎn)品時，它很容易證明，貿(mào)易自由化在被利用于生產(chǎn)與進(jìn)口貨品對抗的貨物時將減少要素的相對回報。在當(dāng)今的發(fā)達(dá)國家的進(jìn)口品競爭的商品在往往是相對密集性非技能和半技能勞動。如果貿(mào)易自由化增加了高勞力低工資國家的進(jìn)口品流入國內(nèi)市場的數(shù)量，那么斯

10、托爾珀 薩繆爾森定理可以預(yù)測工作和工資水平將會受到來自進(jìn)口貨物行業(yè)壓力。壓力還會蔓延到經(jīng)濟(jì)的其他領(lǐng)域。里默理論(1998)是一個解決這個問題的極好的參考應(yīng)用方法。</p><p>　　然而，產(chǎn)品進(jìn)入國際貿(mào)易市場，特別是非常復(fù)雜的商品，由許多部件和組件組成的商品。在過去，生產(chǎn)這樣的產(chǎn)品的方式是，無論這個產(chǎn)品的組成有多少，都是由同一個國家全部生產(chǎn)完成。當(dāng)然，外購零部件是被廣泛使用，但它本質(zhì)上還是更傾向于國內(nèi)化，主要是

11、因為在配備的成本急劇上升時，外包才被推出國界。因此出現(xiàn)了一種趨勢，就是使產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)超過了國界可能使得它被貼上“奧地利制造”或“美國制造”的標(biāo)簽。</p><p>　　近年來，交通運輸和通信技術(shù)的重大創(chuàng)新成果在使跨境合作所需要的成本大幅降低，也使海外設(shè)廠和生產(chǎn)這種模式獲得了極度迅速的成長。不僅貿(mào)易自由化對這種發(fā)展提供了幫助，而且世界各地的直接投資流動和人才，信息以及技術(shù)流而導(dǎo)致的更開放的經(jīng)濟(jì)也使這種發(fā)展得到提升。&l

12、t;/p><p>　　因此，許多產(chǎn)品迅速失去他們國產(chǎn)的身份因為跨國生產(chǎn)和其他從海外采購和制造的零件、部件和組裝。從看他們決定到哪里去采購、生產(chǎn)、裝配，廠商最關(guān)注的就是協(xié)調(diào)以及產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)成本。不難發(fā)現(xiàn)在在產(chǎn)品零部件和組裝過程中，要素稟賦和要素密集度在國家之間的競爭中扮演了一個重要的角色。</p><p>　　要素密集度往往會使一個復(fù)雜的生產(chǎn)過程中的構(gòu)成活動變得不經(jīng)相同。正如傳統(tǒng)貿(mào)易理論所強(qiáng)調(diào)的，

13、最終產(chǎn)品的因素強(qiáng)度是相關(guān)的組件因子強(qiáng)度的加權(quán)平均。在組件級別的評價比較優(yōu)勢，是不是從最終產(chǎn)品這樣做非常不同。從要素稟賦理論的觀點來看，資源豐富高工資的國家會把大多數(shù)要求較高的資本技術(shù)密集型產(chǎn)品部件給大量的熟手技工制造，要求較低產(chǎn)品和部件則會往半技能或非技能勞動力投入更多。</p><p>　　這意味著這個國家可以提高這個最終產(chǎn)品的市場競爭力，通過把這個產(chǎn)品的組件外包到勞動密集型低薪水國家。在圖一顯示了這個想法的重

14、點。1.這里有兩種產(chǎn)品，X和Y，以及其他三個因素，資本(K)，技能勞動力(H)，技能勞動力是由h表現(xiàn)的，和普通勞動力(L)組成的，而普通勞動力是由w表現(xiàn)的?，F(xiàn)在假設(shè)資金是固定的并且在特定的區(qū)域內(nèi)，而這兩種類型的勞動力在部門之間都是完全自由移動的。這兩種產(chǎn)品也假設(shè)是完全自由交易的。在發(fā)達(dá)國家和發(fā)展中國家之間的貿(mào)易，產(chǎn)品X是高工資國家的進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品和產(chǎn)品Y是它的出口產(chǎn)品。</p><p>　　曲線Xo 和Yo分別代表這兩

15、種產(chǎn)品的單位價值的等產(chǎn)量線。在斯托爾帕 - 薩繆爾森的框架里，貿(mào)易自由化所帶來的X的價格下降，畫出位移后的X-等產(chǎn)量線出來。隨后的生產(chǎn)要素價格的調(diào)整，以這種商品相對價格的變化，得出一個平坦的W / H比值，與新的X等產(chǎn)量線相切（未畫出）和最初的Y-等產(chǎn)量線。這場爭論的核心就是非技能勞動力的地位的削弱。</p><p>　　如果產(chǎn)品X的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)得到改進(jìn)，它將移動X-等產(chǎn)量線向內(nèi)移動(未顯示),使要素價格率更陡，從而

16、提高非技能勞動力的相對位置。因此，如果貿(mào)易自由化與技術(shù)改革在與進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品競爭的行業(yè)同時進(jìn)行，非技能勞動力的相對地位可能改善，惡化或保持不變。</p><p>　　在Y-區(qū)域的技術(shù)進(jìn)步使Y-等產(chǎn)量線向內(nèi)位移（未顯示），從而降低非技能勞動力的位置。因此，隨著進(jìn)口帶來了國家出口部門的科技進(jìn)步的經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易自由化，加強(qiáng)了彼此對勞動力立場的惡化。在這里，開放程度和貿(mào)易的增加會帶來勞動力收入狀況的惡化，但是這對政府政策去了解相關(guān)兩

17、個來源的貢獻(xiàn)是很重要的。</p><p>　　當(dāng)我們允許零部件之間貿(mào)易后，這個問題變得更為復(fù)雜的問題。例如，假設(shè)每個最終產(chǎn)品是由兩個部分組成的。讓X產(chǎn)品包括組件的x和y射線通過點，代表擴(kuò)張之路給人的擴(kuò)張之路的斜坡要素價格比W / H，和射線AB x分量Y（未畫出）。這是最終產(chǎn)品的要素，X代表的擴(kuò)張之路，沿射線0X強(qiáng)度因子強(qiáng)度的兩個組成部分的加權(quán)平均。色差x顯然是相對資本密集型的組件。</p><

18、;p>　　當(dāng)運輸和協(xié)調(diào)成本花費如此高而貿(mào)易壁壘也充滿了限制性，這個國家就會將國內(nèi)的行業(yè)分成兩個組成部分。這種類型的綜合生產(chǎn)是模仿許多戰(zhàn)后時期的大多數(shù)商品生產(chǎn)的規(guī)則。然而,在最近幾年,關(guān)稅的減少和非關(guān)稅壁壘,以及在運輸及通信等方面的創(chuàng)新使海上采購和海上生產(chǎn)的成本大幅減少。因此，無論是出口和與進(jìn)口貨對抗的行業(yè)都正在日益廣泛采用海外采購和生產(chǎn)的組件，也在境外進(jìn)行組裝。如飛機(jī)制造商波音和空中客車以及許多在邊境加工的行業(yè)都是這個現(xiàn)象的例子。

19、</p><p>　　假設(shè)在圖1的情況下，清除上述障礙降低海外采購配件x2的成本到國內(nèi)的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)濟(jì)變得無利可圖的地步。在X行業(yè)繼續(xù)在國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)零部件x1并組裝產(chǎn)品，但是它把零部件x2的來源改成從國外進(jìn)口。簡答的假設(shè)它用出口x1去支付進(jìn)口x2的費用。</p><p>　　如果這種生產(chǎn)改革降低產(chǎn)品X的資源成本，就表示在新條件下的等產(chǎn)量線的集合會向左下角位移。假設(shè)單位價值的等產(chǎn)量線代表x11給出的新

20、成本條件，使技能與非技能的勞動力的數(shù)量用一些點表示要求生產(chǎn)足夠的x1的數(shù)量，并保持原有的x1的生產(chǎn)資金。另外還要加上x1出口的數(shù)量作為進(jìn)口x2的抵消，構(gòu)成初始要素價格率w/h。</p><p>　　如果是一個小國家，成品的價格在世界市場上是不受這些變化的影響的，這意味著要素價格率，即w/h，不是一個平衡的比率。平衡比率必須是原來的Y型等產(chǎn)量線，Y0和新X型等產(chǎn)量線X11。那個要素價格率，這里并沒有畫出來，會明顯比

21、初始要素價格率w/h更陡，這意味著非技能工人的相對工資的提高。</p><p>　　在這里，我們需要一個更復(fù)雜的過程。我們看見圖上面顯示，如果產(chǎn)品X的價格降低了，那么最終產(chǎn)品的貿(mào)易自由化將X等產(chǎn)量線移出，轉(zhuǎn)變原來對非技能勞動力的要素價格。但如果貿(mào)易自由化延伸到組件，或者如果降低成本促進(jìn)海外采購技術(shù)變化，那么從這個等產(chǎn)量線壓力源會運行在相反的方向。數(shù)量和貿(mào)易格局將會改變，而相對工資會上漲，下跌或者是保持不變。在這里

22、，簡易的斯托爾帕-薩繆爾森理論顯然被打破了。</p><p>　　2.1成分專業(yè)化技術(shù)密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)</p><p>　　如果組件專業(yè)化是發(fā)生在技術(shù)密集型行業(yè)，產(chǎn)品Y將在這個相對處于劣勢的國家里再一次成為相對勞動力密集型的組件。這將通過線段的斜率cd得出組件y2的擴(kuò)展線。在一定意義上海外采購的影響，然后進(jìn)行對以前類似案例的分析，給出了新的單位價值等產(chǎn)量Y11，再次要在要素價格比率上做一個調(diào)整。

23、然而，與以往的情況不同，新的平衡要素價格率，必須要和等產(chǎn)量線Y11相切于xo，比原來的更平坦，因此這暗示著非技能工人的工資將會下降。</p><p>　　2.2就業(yè)和商品輸出的影響</p><p>　　假設(shè)在經(jīng)濟(jì)情況允許得到了全部就業(yè)的條件下，當(dāng)要素價格率會從就業(yè)和輸出這兩個方向的任何一個地方，那么海外采購部門就會得到增加而削減其他部門。從圖2得出調(diào)整后的基本特征，初始平衡點設(shè)在無差異曲線

24、IO上的Qo和Co兩點。Pw是世界價格比率而Pd國內(nèi)關(guān)稅包容相對價格。海外采購的效果與那些相關(guān)的技術(shù)改進(jìn)有類似的效果，即擴(kuò)大生產(chǎn)可能性曲線沿主軸的行業(yè)。因此，這兩個控制板上制造都轉(zhuǎn)移到Q1。在圖2a中，采用海上采購的國家中，與進(jìn)口商品競爭的行業(yè)，X產(chǎn)品的輸入增加而Y產(chǎn)品輸入減少（在Q1）。在圖2b中，采用海上采購的國家中的出口行業(yè)，Y產(chǎn)品的輸入增加而X產(chǎn)品輸入。</p><p>　　國家利潤因為產(chǎn)品Y行業(yè)通過海外

25、采購而得到明顯的增加，但是它的效果是不明顯的因為它發(fā)生在與進(jìn)口貨對抗的行業(yè)。有數(shù)據(jù)顯示國家利潤順著消耗量下降的時候，點Co會移動到C1。但這并不是唯一可能發(fā)生的結(jié)果。通過固定的國內(nèi)價格比率，Pd，猜想到這包含關(guān)稅價格是一個較小的關(guān)稅的結(jié)果比以前更適用于世界價格也比以前減少了。畫得較陡的世界價格線（沒有畫出）是在圖2中用一條線通過點Qo和Q1，畫的這條線會因為角度變得更陡使自己也變得更陡，直到世界價格線穿過點Qo但是還沒超過Q1，而不是圖

26、上面畫得這樣。在這種情況下，產(chǎn)品X部門的境外采購會使利潤增加。此外，需要注意的是境外采購與進(jìn)口競爭部門的影響，以減少最終產(chǎn)品的貿(mào)易，在圖2中由更小的貿(mào)易角顯示（沒有畫出）。因此，盡管貿(mào)易自由化在水平增加進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品數(shù)量，貿(mào)易自由化在構(gòu)成的等級上的體積減少進(jìn)口數(shù)量。</p><p>　　按照慣例在赫克歇爾-俄林的范圍內(nèi)，充分就業(yè)和重新分配資源的摩擦是已經(jīng)固定的。這是不難想象的，但是，搜索和再培訓(xùn)的費用可以減緩調(diào)整的速度

27、，并增加其成本。然而，這是部門從事境外采購可能遇到的產(chǎn)出和就業(yè)的擴(kuò)大。結(jié)果就是那些反對與低工資國家進(jìn)行交易的擔(dān)憂，就是海外采購將導(dǎo)致行業(yè)中就業(yè)機(jī)會消失的擔(dān)憂，使變異數(shù)波動異常強(qiáng)烈。</p><p>　　雖然上述結(jié)果是由該模型的具體假設(shè)下實現(xiàn)的，所得出的結(jié)果與我們的設(shè)想基本一致。原本的設(shè)想是采用了境外采購，降低了成本，從而提高競爭力，出口的產(chǎn)品應(yīng)該增加而不是減少。一個小國，它的最終產(chǎn)品的價格在是由世界市場的需求和供

28、給條件所決定的，通過節(jié)約成本來提高在世界市場價格銷售。一個大國就可以通過降低成本使價格更低從而擴(kuò)大市場份額。</p><p>　　我們可以得出結(jié)論，部門注意到組件貿(mào)易自由化使貿(mào)易和工人收入之間的關(guān)系增加多了一層復(fù)雜的關(guān)系。如果貿(mào)易自由化包括了在進(jìn)口競爭部門的境外采購，那么工人的相對工資就會隨著上升或下降。如果貿(mào)易自由化使得出口行業(yè)更容易境外采購，那么后果將是最終成品進(jìn)口增加對于工人的相對工資起到消極的作用。因此，

29、對于非技能工人來說，產(chǎn)品X在出口行業(yè)企業(yè)采取境外采購以及出口行業(yè)技術(shù)發(fā)展是最壞的情況。</p><p>　　一些研究人員認(rèn)為，生產(chǎn)非貿(mào)易品行業(yè)的存在可能會造成不平等收入的擴(kuò)大。我們采用上述方法確定的條件下，會出現(xiàn)這種情況。我們看到圖1所描述的離岸采購對非貿(mào)易世界的影響。我們這樣做是通過擴(kuò)展的曲線圖，重新給產(chǎn)品Y和X貼上標(biāo)簽T（用于貿(mào)易）和N（非貿(mào)易）。這意味著X和Y兩個行業(yè)，已經(jīng)被集中到一個單一的可貿(mào)易部門，這就

30、要求我們假設(shè)在這次設(shè)定的貿(mào)易條件是保持恒定的。在圖中，非貿(mào)易品（N）現(xiàn)在是勞動密集型行業(yè)，而可貿(mào)易（T）是技術(shù)密集型行業(yè)。這種假設(shè)在研究文獻(xiàn)中是一種普遍做法，也可能反映在現(xiàn)實實施得很好，特別是如果一個包括非貿(mào)易部門的范圍廣泛的服務(wù)。</p><p>　　如果是從事境外采購，因此，從到新的單位價值等產(chǎn)量線轉(zhuǎn)移To到T11的貿(mào)易部門，然后在生產(chǎn)要素價格的調(diào)整將導(dǎo)致非熟練工人的工資下降相對熟練同行的。根據(jù)模型，產(chǎn)出和就

31、業(yè)都在貿(mào)易部門和非貿(mào)易品部門的興衰崛起的充分就業(yè)的假設(shè)。作為國內(nèi)經(jīng)濟(jì)的進(jìn)一步開放或“全球化”，其可怕的負(fù)面影響的非技術(shù)工人的相對位置，許多這方面的發(fā)展將被解釋。然而，這樣的結(jié)果帶來了一個國家制造業(yè)的擴(kuò)張和收縮，對非貿(mào)易和服務(wù)部門推測。這樣的結(jié)果與觀察到的發(fā)展顯然是不一致的，按照制造業(yè)已穩(wěn)步下降，發(fā)達(dá)經(jīng)濟(jì)體隨處可見。然而，如果像流通，金融，保險，咨詢等服務(wù)包括在貿(mào)易品，屬于他們的地方，然后該部門將擴(kuò)大的預(yù)測可能會少遠(yuǎn)牽強(qiáng)。</p&g

32、t;<p>　　當(dāng)在非貿(mào)易品部門中進(jìn)行境外采購的地方，那么結(jié)果是相反的，與非技術(shù)工人的相對工資上漲和輸出，并在非貿(mào)易部門上漲以及就業(yè)。在這種情況下，服務(wù)業(yè)的擴(kuò)展，而制造業(yè)的跌幅。</p><p><b>　　外文翻譯原文</b></p><p><b>　　Summary:</b></p><p>　　The

33、 domestic repercussions of trade liberalization have come under intense scrutiny in recent years. Trade liberalization and other aspects of globalization have been blamed for income inequality in the United States and un

34、employment in Europe. A key concern has been trade with low-wage developing countries. Although economists have studied the issue, no clear-cut answers have emerged. This paper examines some reasons for this ambiguity. E

35、ndogeneity and simultaneity can create major problems, ca</p><p>　　1 Introduction</p><p>　　As trade and economic openness have grown in recent years, so has the debate over their effects on the

36、welfare of various interest groups. Of particular concern have been the potential consequences of globalization for the jobs and wages of less skilled workers. This debate has been intensified as the share of industrial-

37、country trade with developing, low-wage countries has risen. In the United States, as well as Europe, fears are widespread that jobs, wages and living standards are at risk, esp</p><p>　　Among economists, th

38、e debate has focused on the relative contributions of trade and technological change to the observed rise in income inequality in the United States and to high and sustained unemployment in Europe.Trade economists have t

39、ended to minimize the role of trade in these developments, while a number of labor economists have advanced the opposite argument. Although the debate is far from resolving the dispute, it has revealed the immense comple

40、xity of the issue at both theoretical an</p><p>　　Section 2 sets out the basic issues involved and traces the effects on wages and employment in the context of a two-good, three-factor model in which all goo

41、ds are tradable. Section 3 considers the role of end products which are non-tradable, but some of whose parts and components may be tradable and thus subject to offshore sourcing. Since offshore sourcing may involve offs

42、hore production and hence foreign direct investment, Section 4 examines the implications of capital flows. Section 5 examin</p><p>　　2 Offshore Sourcing and Relative Wages</p><p>　　One of the co

43、rnerstones of traditional trade theory is the role of factor proportions in the determination of specialization and trade. Variations in factor endowments across countries and in factor intensities across products play a

44、 key role in the determination of comparative advantage. When these principles are applied at the level of products, it is easily shown that trade liberalization will reduce the relative returns of factors used intensive

45、ly in the production of import-competing goods.</p><p>　　The products entering into international trade are, however, very complex commodities, consisting of many parts and components. In the past, the domin

46、ant tendency has been for such products to be produced more or less in their entirety in a single country. Outsourcing of parts and components was, of course, widely used, but it tended to be more national than internati

47、onal in nature, mainly because the costs of coordination rose steeply when outsourcing was pushed across national borders. This te</p><p>　　In recent years, major innovations in transportation and communicat

48、ions technologies have sharply reduced the cost of cross-border coordination, with the consequence that offshore sourcing and production have been growing extremely rapidly. This development has been helped along not onl

49、y by trade liberalization, but by greater openness of economies around the world to flows of direct investment and to the movement of persons, information and technologies.</p><p>　　Consequently, many produc

50、ts are rapidly losing their national identities as multinationals and others resort increasingly to offshore sourcing and production of parts, components, and assembly. In making their decisions about where to source, pr

51、oduce or assemble, manufacturers pay close attention to coordination as well as production costs. It is not surprising to find that factor endowments and factor intensities play important roles in determining countries’

52、competitiveness in the production o</p><p>　　Factor intensity tends to vary across the constituent activities of a complex production process. The factor intensity of the end product, which has been the focu

53、s of traditional trade theory, is just the weighted average of the associated component factor intensities. Evaluating comparative advantage at the level of components is not very different from doing so for final produc

54、ts. From the factor-proportions point of view, a capital-rich, high-wage country, endowed with plenty of skilled worke</p><p>　　This implies that such a country can improve its competitiveness in the market

55、for the final product by outsourcing labor-intensive components to low-wage countries. The gist of this idea is displayed in Figure 1. There are two products, X and Y, and three factors, capital (K), skilled labor (H), w

56、hose return is represented by h and ordinary labor (L), whose return is w. Capital is for the moment assumed to be immobile and sector-specific, while the two types of labor are perfectly mobile betwee</p><p&g

57、t;<b>　　Figure 1</b></p><p>　　Curves Xo and Yo represent the unit-value isoquants for the two products, respectively. In the Stolper-Samuelson framework, a decline in the price of X, brought about

58、 by trade liberalization, shifts the X-isoquant out. The subsequent adjustment of factor prices to this change in relative goods prices generates a flatter w/h ratio, tangent to the new X-isoquant (not drawn) and the ori

59、ginal Y-isoquant. This deterioration in unskilled labor’s position is at the heart of the contemporary debate.</p><p>　　If technological improvement takes place in the X-industry, it will shift the X-isoquan

60、t inward (not shown), making the factor-price ratio steeper and thereby improving the relative position of unskilled labor. Thus, if trade liberalization and technical change take place simultaneously in the import-compe

61、ting industry, the relative position of unskilled labor may improve, deteriorate, or stay the same.</p><p>　　Technical progress in the Y-sector shifts the Y-isoquant inward (not shown), thus worsening the po

62、sition of unskilled labor. Hence, trade liberalization which brings in imports together with technical progress in the country’s export sector would reinforce each other in worsening labor’s position. Here, an increase i

63、n openness and trade would be associated with a deterioration in labor’s income position, but it would be important for policy purposes to know the relative contributions of the two </p><p>　　The problem bec

64、omes more complicated when we allow for trade in parts and components. To illustrate, suppose that each final product is made up of two components. Let product X consist of components x1 and x2, with the ray through poin

65、t a representing the expansion path for x1 at factor-price ratio w/h, and ray ab giving the slope of the expansion path (not drawn) for component x2. The factor intensity along ray 0x, which represents the expansion path

66、 for the end product, X, is the weighted aver</p><p>　　When transportation and coordination costs are sufficiently high and trade barriers sufficiently restrictive, the country will produce both components a

67、t home. Integrated production of this type was the norm for many commodities in much of the post-war period. In recent years, however, reductions in tariff and non-tariff barriers, as well as innovations in transportatio

68、n and telecommunications have sharply reduced the cost of offshore sourcing and offshore production. Hence, both export and impo</p><p>　　Suppose, in the context of Figure 1, that removal of the aforemention

69、ed barriers reduces the offshore cost of component x2 to such an extent that its production at home becomes economically non-viable. The X-industry continues to make component x1 at home and to assemble the product there

70、, but it shifts procurement of component x2 to foreign sources. Assume for simplicity that it pays for imports of x2 by exporting x1.</p><p>　　If this realignment of production reduces the resource cost of X

71、, then the family of isoquants representing the new conditions will shift inward and rotate to the north-west. Suppose that the unit-value isoquant representing the new cost conditions is given by X11, so that the quanti

72、ties of skilled and unskilled labor used at point a represent the amounts required to produce enough of x1 to make the original quantity of X, plus an additional amount of x1 to be exported in return for imports of x<

73、/p><p>　　If the country is small, end-product prices are given on world markets and are unaffected by these changes, implying that factor-price ratio, w/h, is no longer an equilibrium ratio. The equilibrium rat

74、io must be tangent to the original Y-isoquant, Y0, and the new X-isoquant, X11. That factor price ratio, which is not drawn, will clearly be steeper than ratio, w/h, implying an improvement in the relative wages of unski

75、lled workers.</p><p>　　Here, we have a further complication of the process. We saw above that liberalization of trade in final goods shifts the X-isoquants out if it reduces the price of X; that shift turns

76、factor prices against unskilled labor. But if the trade liberalization extends to components, or if cost-reducing technical change promotes offshore sourcing, then the pressure on isoquants from this source will run in t

77、he opposite direction. Both the volume and the pattern of trade will change, while relative wage</p><p>　　2.1 Component Specialization in the Skill-Intensive Sector</p><p>　　If component special

78、ization were to take place in the skill-intensive sector, Y, it would again be the relatively labor-intensive component in which the country would have comparative disadvantage. This would be component y2, whose expansio

79、n path is given by the slope of line segment cd. The analysis of the effects of offshore sourcing then proceeds in a manner analogous to the previous case, so that the new unit-value isoquant is given at Y11, again requi

80、ring an adjustment in the factor-price r</p><p>　　2.2 Employment and Output Effects</p><p>　　While the factor-price ratio may move in either direction, employment and output will rise in the sec

81、tor engaged in offshore sourcing and fall in the other sector, under the assumption that the economy’s resources must be fully employed. The essential features of adjustment are given in Figure 2, where the initial equil

82、ibrium occurs at points Qo and Co on indifference curve Io. Pw is the world price ratio and Pd the domestic, tariff-inclusive relative price. Offshore sourcing has effects analogo</p><p>　　National welfare c

83、learly rises as a result of offshore sourcing by the Y-industry, but its effect is ambiguous if it takes place in the import-competing industry. The figure shows the case of a decline in national welfare as consumption m

84、oves from point Co to C1. But this is not the only possible outcome. At the given domestic price ratio, Pd, imagine that this tariff-inclusive price were the result of a smaller tariff than before applied to a steeper wo

85、rld price than before. That steeper world </p><p><b>　　Figure 2</b></p><p>　　As is customary in the Heckscher-Ohlin context, full employment and frictionless reallocation of resource

86、s is taken as given. It is easy to imagine, however, that search and retraining costs can slow the speed of adjustment and increase its cost. Nevertheless, it is the sector engaged in offshore sourcing that experiences a

87、n expansion in output and employment. This result is strongly at variance with the concerns often expressed by those who oppose trade with low-wage countries, namely, that off</p><p>　　While the results abov

88、e are driven by the specific assumptions of the model, the outcome is not inconsistent with intuition. Intuition suggests that output should rise rather than fall in the industry which resorts to offshore sourcing, becau

89、se offshore sourcing cuts costs and thereby improves competitiveness. A small country, whose end-product prices are given by demand and supply conditions in world markets responds to the cost savings by increasing sales

90、at world prices. A large country is en</p><p>　　We conclude this section by noting that liberalization of component trade adds an additional layer of complexity to the relationship between trade and workers’

91、 incomes. If trade liberalization includes offshore sourcing in the import-competing sector, then workers’ relative wages may rise or fall. If trade liberalization makes it easier for export industries to engage in offsh

92、ore sourcing, then the consequences will be to augment the negative effects of the rise in end product imports on workers</p><p>　　3 Offshore Sourcing in the Presence of Non-Tradables</p><p>　　S

93、ome researchers have argued that the presence of industries producing non-tradables could have contributed to the widening of income inequality. We employ the foregoing approach to identify the conditions under which thi

94、s would be the case. We return to Figure 1 to sketch the effect of offshore sourcing in a world with non-tradables. We do so by re-labeling the isoquant maps for Y and X as T (for tradables) and N (for non-tradables). Th

95、is means that the industries, X and Y, have been lumped tog</p><p>　　If it is the tradables sector which engages in offshore sourcing, so that the new unit-value isoquant shifts to T11 from To, then the resu

96、lting adjustment in factor prices will cause the wages of unskilled workers to decline relative to their skilled counterparts. Under the full-employment assumptions of the model, output and employment both rise in the tr

97、adables sector and fall in the non-tradables sector. This development would be interpreted by many as further opening or “globalization” of th</p><p>　　When offshore sourcing takes place in the non-tradables

98、 sector, the results are reversed, with the relative wages of unskilled workers rising and output and employment in the non-tradables sector rising as well. In this scenario, the services sector expands, while manufactu