外文翻譯原文--環(huán)境管理和自然旅游目的地的競爭力

1、<p>　　外文翻譯原文--環(huán)境管理和自然旅游目的地的競爭力</p><p>　　Environmental and Resource Economics 24 213–233 2003 </p><p><b>　　213 </b></p><p>　　2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers P

2、rinted in the Netherlands </p><p>　　Environmental Management and the </p><p>　　Competitiveness of Nature-Based Tourism </p><p>　　Destinations </p><p>　　TWAN HUYBERS1 an

3、d JEFF BENNETT2 </p><p>　　1School of Economics and Management The University of New South Wales Australian Defence </p><p>　　Force Academy Canberra ACT 2600 Australia E-mail thuyberscom </p

4、><p>　　2National Centre for Development Studies The Australian National University </p><p>　　Accepted 15 August 2002 </p><p>　　Abstract Environmental management at nature-based touris

5、m destinations includes a private and </p><p>　　a public component The former refers to voluntary environmental protection activities carried out </p><p>　　by individual and groups of tourism

6、operators These activities are motivated by the dependence </p><p>　　of the product provided by the tourism industry on the quality of the natural environment Public </p><p>　　sector management

7、on the other hand refers to the environmental regulations imposed on tourism </p><p>　　businesses The overall environmental management structure has a dual effect on the competitive- </p><p>　　n

8、ess of the tourism industry at nature-based tourism destinations While the industry may benet </p><p>　　from environmental management through demand stimulation the tourism businesses also incur the </p&g

9、t;<p>　　associated management related costs In this paper the overall effect of environmental management </p><p>　　on competitiveness as measured by aggregate tourism industry protability is estimated

10、 in a case </p><p>　　study of Tropical North Queensland </p><p>　　Key words competitiveness environmental management region tourism </p><p>　　JEL classications L83 Q21 Q26 Q28 R11 &

11、lt;/p><p>　　1 Introduction </p><p>　　Tourism activity has grown rapidly since the Second World War due to advances in </p><p>　　technology and increases in standards of living enjoye

12、d across a large part of the </p><p>　　world Nature-based tourism is a particularly fast growing type of tourism World </p><p>　　Travel and Tourism Council 1998 However increases in the number

13、 of tourists </p><p>　　at environmental attractions can put pressure on that environment Department </p><p>　　of Tourism 1994 This raises a number of issues Firstly since the environm

14、ent </p><p>　　often possesses the characteristics of a public good or a common access resource </p><p>　　governments have stepped in to impose regulations with respect to environmental </p>

15、;<p>　　impacts of tourism activity This has caused concerns about compliance costs </p><p>　　within the tourism industry Yet since the environment provides the attractions for </p>&l

16、t;p>　　tourists and hence the livelihood for much of the tourism industry the industry </p><p>　　recognises the importance of protecting the environment from tourism induced </p>

17、<p>　　214 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p>　　damage Indeed in terms of competition with other destinations – both domestic </p><p>

18、;　　and international – a superior condition of the environment might give the destin- </p><p>　　ations industry a competitive edge This in turn can provide the impetus for </p><p>　　

19、tourism operators to engage in voluntary protection of the environment on which </p><p>　　their businesses rely </p><p>　　This implies a dual effect of environmental management activities on a t

20、ourism </p><p>　　destinations competitiveness On the one hand there are cost implications for </p><p>　　tourism businesses that affect negatively the destinations competitive p

21、osition </p><p>　　However to the extent that visitor demand is determined by the quality of the </p><p>　　destinations environment the destinations competitiveness is en

22、hanced The </p><p>　　combination of these two effects is addressed in this paper In particular the cost </p><p>　　and demand implications of environmental management for competitiveness ar

23、e </p><p>　　investigated in a case study of Tropical North Queensland1 </p><p>　　Tropical North Queensland is an appropriate case study region for three related </p><p>　　reasons F

24、irstly the region is one of Australias prime nature-based destinations </p><p>　　for both domestic and international tourists The regions tourism industry relies </p><p>　　heavily on the g

25、eneral quality of its environmental assets Driml and Common </p><p>　　1996 Far North Queensland Regional Planning Advisory Committee 1998 This </p><p>　　includes the two World Heri

26、tage listed natural attractions – the Great Barrier </p><p>　　Reef and Wet Tropics Rainforests – as well as the general scenic landscapes and </p><p>　　natural areas2 Secondly due to the

27、 development of Tropical North Queensland </p><p>　　there has been public concern about the quality of the regions environment Far </p><p>　　North Queensland Regional Planning Advisory Committe

28、e 1996 As a result the </p><p>　　regions tourism businesses are subjected to various types of environmental regu- </p><p>　　lations Huybers and Bennett 2000b The regulatory framework c

29、onstitutes the </p><p>　　public environmental management component with respect to the regions tourism </p><p>　　industry Finally various private environmental management activities are carried

30、 </p><p>　　out in the regions tourism industry Huybers and Bennett 2000b identify environ- </p><p>　　mental protection as one of the two major areas of cooperation between tourism </p>

31、<p>　　businesses in Tropical North Queensland </p><p>　　The paper is structured as follows The conceptual framework underlying the </p><p>　　empirical investigation is developed in the

32、 next section This is followed by a </p><p>　　section in which the data and their sources are discussed The assumptions under- </p><p>　　lying the model are outlined in Section 4

33、The results of the simulations of the </p><p>　　model are presented in Section 5 In the nal section the implications of the </p><p>　　investigation are discussed </p><

34、;p>　　2 Conceptual Framework </p><p>　　The literature regarding the relationship between the environment and international </p><p>　　competitiveness has traditionally focussed on the effects

35、of environmental compli- </p><p>　　ance costs Jayadevappa and Chhatre 2000 UNEP 2000 In this conventional </p><p>　　view rms environmental management measures are interpreted

36、as reactive in </p><p>　　NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 215 </p><p>　　nature ie businesses complying with externally imposed environment

37、al regula- </p><p>　　tions Turner Pearce and Bateman 1994 Altham and Guerin 1999 In that context </p><p>　　a comparatively high level of domestic environmental protection costs is hypothes- &l

38、t;/p><p>　　ised to reduce the internationally competitive position of domestic industries as </p><p>　　reected in reduced economic prots andor smaller market shares </p><p>　　T

39、he hypothesised relationship between environmental protection costs and </p><p>　　international competitiveness has been subjected to empirical investigation Kalt </p><p>　　1988

40、 Repetto 1995 Jaffe et al 1995 The empirical studies focus on the macroe- </p><p>　　conomic effects of environmental control costs on a countrys trade balance </p><p>　　The ndings

41、 show no evidence of a signicant impact of environment control </p><p>　　expenditure on international trade ows This is mainly attributed to the small share </p><p>　　of environment co

42、ntrol costs in total business costs – approximately two percent </p><p>　　on average across industries </p><p>　　These studies are limited in two ways They concentrate solely on the

43、cost </p><p>　　effects associated with environmental protection regulations imposed by govern- </p><p>　　ments and they are predominantly macro in focus However an analysis that <

44、/p><p>　　is restricted to the supply side effects across the whole economy ignores the </p><p>　　potential relevance of demand side factors on an industry by industry scale Increas- <

45、;/p><p>　　ingly rms and industries are becoming aware of the potential benets of their </p><p>　　environmental protection activities with respect to consumer demand </p><p>　　A

46、cknowledging the potential demand effects of environmental management on </p><p>　　competitiveness is particularly relevant to Australias tourism industry Since the </p><p>　　environment is an i

47、mportant component of Australias tourism product Huybers </p><p>　　and Bennett 1996 1997 protection of the environment can be expected to be </p><p>　　an important demand stimulato

48、r The benets that result from demand stimulation </p><p>　　may act as an incentive for voluntary environmental protection activities by tourism </p><p>　　business operators either individually o

49、r as a group </p><p>　　The notion of the dual effect with respect to a nature-based destinations </p><p>　　environment-competitiveness relationship is illustrated in Figure 1 I

50、t incorpor- </p><p>　　ates the conventional view of tourism businesses regulatory compliance costs </p><p>　　as one link between environmental management and competitiveness How

51、ever </p><p>　　in addition to government regulations voluntary environmental protection activ- </p><p>　　ities by tourism businesses constitute the other component of the environmental

52、</p><p>　　management framework </p><p>　　The costs incurred by tourism businesses due to environmental management </p><p>　　reduce the competitiveness of the destinatio

53、ns tourism industry compared with </p><p>　　other destinations ceteris paribus However there may also be a link between </p><p>　　environmental management and demand – both dire

54、ct and indirect The indirect </p><p>　　link is established via the positive effect of environmental management on the </p><p>　　quality of the destinations environmental assets Touri

55、sts are drawn to the region </p><p>　　because of its superior environmental attractions compared to other destinations </p><p>　　The direct link pertains to the effect of prospective to

56、urists preferences for </p><p>　　visiting destinations where the environmental attractions are known to have a </p><p>　　216

57、 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p>　　Figure 1 Environmental management and the competitiveness of a nature-based tourism </p><p>　　destination </p><p>　　protected st

58、atus3 Both the direct and indirect demand side links imply an increased </p><p>　　willingness by tourists to pay for a visit to the region </p><p>　　The concept of competitiveness is often asso

59、ciated with an individual rm and </p><p>　　its position in the business environment For instance in the strategic management </p><p>　　literature the emphasis is explicitly on a rms pursuit of p

60、ositive economic prots </p><p>　　since rm strategy is essentially about how to position and manage a rm </p><p>　　so that efciency rents may be created protected and possibly in

61、creased Foss </p><p>　　1996 1 In that context competitiveness is dened as a rms ability to sustain </p><p>　　its protability in competition with its rivals This rm-level denition of compet- &l

62、t;/p><p>　　itiveness is here applied to the aggregate tourism destination region that as an </p><p>　　entity competes with domestic and international regions Hence the focus is on <

63、/p><p>　　the aggregate protability of the nature-based tourism industry based in Tropical </p><p>　　North Queensland and not on the individual tourism businesses in the region such </p><

64、p>　　as accommodation and attraction operators </p><p>　　Adopting the perspective of a region or a country as an aggregate entity </p><p>　　is common in economic

65、analysis For instance international trade ows are </p><p>　　analysed at the country level by considering aggregate country characteristics With </p><p>　　respect to tourism destin

66、ations countries and lower level aggregate destinations are </p><p>　　frequently used as units of analysis Findlay and Forsyth 1988 Ritchie and Crouch </p><p>　　2000 For instance with respect

67、to nature-based destinations Findlay and Forsyth </p><p>　　1988 110 refer to the foundation of market power at the national level This is </p><p>　　because any one country will have a unique na

68、tural resource endowment </p><p>　　Using a region as the unit of analysis is also consistent with the concept of the </p><p>　　geographically concentrated cluster Pyke and Sengenberger 199

69、2 Porter 1998 </p><p>　　Schmitz 1999 In a cluster rms within the region compete with each other </p><p>　　in certain areas on the basis of their individual strengths whi

70、le they engage in </p><p>　　collective inter-regional competition based on the regions distinctive features For </p><p>　　nature-based tourism destinations cooperative behaviour is expected t

71、o be concen- </p><p>　　NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 217 </p><p>　　Figure 2 Tropical North Queensland environmental management and pr

72、otability </p><p>　　trated on the key natural attractions that are the major distinguishing destination </p><p>　　characteristics </p><p>　　Huybers and Bennett 2000b document evi

73、dence of the nature and extent of </p><p>　　cooperation between tourism businesses in Tropical North Queensland The two </p><p>　　main areas are collective promotion of the destination and en

74、vironmental protec- </p><p>　　tion activities This is further developed in Huybers and Bennett 2001 in which </p><p>　　the rationale for treating Tropical North Queensland as a collec

75、tive entity and </p><p>　　appropriate aggregate unit of analysis is established </p><p>　　The conceptualisation of Figure 1 can be translated into the economic model of </p><p>　　

76、Figure 2 This model is the basis for the empirical investigations reported in the </p><p>　　paper It shows Tropical North Queensland as a destination that competes in an </p><p>　　imperfect

77、ly competitive international market for tourism destinations4 The region </p><p>　　exerts a degree of market power due to the differentiation of its tourism product </p><p>　　based on the rela

78、tively high quality of its environmental assets This is reected in </p><p>　　the downward sloping demand curve Applying the model of imperfect competition </p><p>　　to a tourism destination is c

79、onsistent with Findlay and Forsyth 1988 </p><p>　　Figure 2 illustrates the impact of environmental management on the aggregate </p><p>　　protability of Tropical North Queenslands tourism indus

80、try It shows the market </p><p>　　for Tropical North Queenslands composite tourism product in two situations with </p><p>　　and without environmental management For simplicity marginal costs MC

81、 are </p><p>　　assumed constant and hence the MC and average cost AC curves are drawn as a </p><p>　　single horizontal line5 Cost curves MC and AC the downward sloping demand </p

82、><p>　　1 1 </p><p>　　curve D 1 and its associated marginal revenue curve MR 1 refer to the situation </p><p>　　218

83、 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p>　　in which environmental management has been effective in achieving a high </p><p>　　environmental quality The prot-imisation equilibrium

84、is reached at quantity </p><p>　　q and price p resulting in an aggregate economic prot accruing to the regions </p><p>　　1 1 </p><p>　　tourism industry equal to are

85、a abcp1 </p><p>　　The situation without environmental management is represented by a decline </p><p>　　in both demand and in costs of Tropical North Queenslands tourism product <

86、;/p><p>　　ceteris paribus These costs include rms costs of complying with imposed </p><p>　　government regulations and any expenditure related to voluntary environmental <

87、/p><p>　　protection activities While tourism business operators costs fall due to the absence </p><p>　　of environmental management the condition of the environment deteriorates and </p><

88、;p>　　results in a fall in demand This situation is represented by the cost curves </p><p>　　MC AC demand curve D and marginal revenue curve MR The new level </p>

89、<p>　　2 2 2 2 </p><p>　　of aggregate prot is equal to area defp A fall in aggregate industry prot as </p><p><b

90、>　　2 </b></p><p>　　depicted in Figure 2 is interpreted as a decline in destination competitiveness </p><p>　　The marginal perspective represented in Figure 2 implies that the

91、direction </p><p>　　and magnitude of the change in the regions aggregate tourism industry prot </p><p>　　depends on the relative magnitudes of the cost and demand side effe

92、cts ceteris </p><p>　　paribus 6 The latter refers for instance to the situation at other destinations It also </p><p>　　involves the other conditions related to Tropical North Queensland itsel

93、f such as </p><p>　　the regions destination promotion While Tropical North Queenslands destination </p><p>　　promotion emphasises the quality of its natural attractions the extent and nature of

94、</p><p>　　that promotion and is assumed to be unaffected in the analysis </p><p>　　The above model is used as the basis of an empirical assessment of the compet- </p><p>　　itiveness

95、 effects of environmental management in Tropical North Queensland To </p><p>　　determine the shift in the cost curves in Figure 2 estimates of tourism businesses </p><p>　　costs of environmental

96、 management are required Similarly estimates of the effect </p><p>　　of environmental quality on tourist demand are needed to assess the shift in the </p><p>　　demand curve in the gure The natu

97、re of the relevant data and the methodologies </p><p>　　used to collect them are now briey discussed </p><p><b>　　3 Data </b></p><p>　　31 COSTS </p><p>　

98、　Australian Bureau of Statistics 1999a contains gures on environment protec- </p><p>　　tion expenditure in Australian industries in 1996–97 Environment protection </p><

99、p>　　expenditure includes expenditure related to compliance with regulations as well </p><p>　　as voluntary activities associated with market forces Using industry cost gures </p><p>　　A

100、ustralian Bureau of Statistics 1999b it can be shown that the costs of environ- </p><p>　　mental management are less than or around one percent of total costs for Australian </p><p>　　industrie

101、s </p><p>　　However environmental management costs may be more signicant for indi- </p><p>　　vidual industries or sectors within industries For instance some industries sectors </p><

102、p>　　NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 219 </p><p>　　or individual rms depend more heavily on the environment than others and are </p><p>

103、　　more heavily regulated with respect to their effects on the environment This is </p><p>　　reected in higher environmental compliance costs In that context Huybers and </p><p>　　Bennett

104、1996 1997 estimated the costs of environmental regulations to tourism </p><p>　　operators in Australia to be around ve percent of total business costs </p><p>　　To substantiate the industry est

105、imates the costs of environmental management </p><p>　　to tourism businesses in Tropical North Queensland were estimated using eld </p><p>　　study data Huybers and Bennett 2000b

106、 Out of 24 operators interviewed 14 </p><p>　　operators gave a numerical estimate of the proportion of overall environmental </p><p>　　protection costs andor a separate est