[學(xué)習(xí)]所謂商業(yè)貿(mào)易實(shí)質(zhì)上只是使生產(chǎn)成本更為便宜的一種手段

1、Principle of Reciprocal Demand,By: John Stuart Mill,Brief Biography of John Stuart Mill,John Stuart Mill, the eldest son of James Mill, was born in London on 20th May, 1806. Educated a home by his father, Mill had studie

2、d the works of Aristotle, Hobbes, Plato, Jeremy Bentham, Ricardo and Adam Smith by the time he had reached the age of twelve. At the age of seventeen formed a discussion group called the Utilitarian Society. Mill also

3、began having articles published in the Westminster Review, a journal founded by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill to propagate Radical views. He also wrote for other newspapers and journals. Mill took an active role in the c

4、ampaign for parliamentary reform, and was one of the first to suggest that women should have the same political rights as men.,(1806-1873),In 1834 Mill founded the Radical journal, the London Review. Two years later, he

5、purchased the Westminster Review and merged the two journals.,In 1833 Mill became a close friend of Harriet Taylor. The two worked closely together but Harriet was married and her husband, John Taylor, was unwilling to g

6、ive her a divorce. After the death of John Taylor in 1849, Harriet married John Stuart Mill. In the 1865 General Election John Stuart Mill was invited to stand as the Radical candidate for the Westminster seat in Parlia

7、ment and was defeated in 1868 General Election..After leaving the House of Commons, Mill was now able to finish off the book he had been writing for some time, The Subjection of Women (1869). Harriet Taylor had died in

8、1854 but her daughter, Helen Taylor, worked closely with him on the book. John Stuart Mill died on 8th May, 1873.,Principles of Political Economy,John Stuart Mill’s Principles of Political Economy was published in the re

9、volutionary year 1848 when the great French Revolution took place and also the year of the publication of The Communist Manifesto written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In some sense the publication of Principles of

10、 Political Economy met with the requirement of the ruling class to offset the influences of Marxism. Given this background and theoretical research Mill had made in his book Principles of Political Economy had become th

11、e supreme statement of classical economics and, for nearly half of a century, the standard textbook of the students of department of economics in almost all universities in Europe and North America.,From Smith & Rica

12、rdo to Mill,Comparative advantage explains the pattern of trade. It also furnishes a strong argument for trade gains and tells much about readjustment of production and the basic laws that determine the real rate of exch

13、anges between the exportable and importable goods. But to explain the actual pattern of production, or the exact terms at which one country’s products exchange for those of another, we also need detailed knowledge of dem

14、and and supply. This was firstly verbalized by John Stuart Mill and then put into graphic form by Alfred Marshall and F.Y. Edgeworth. Adam Smith and David Ricardo both told us that the rate of exchange in internati

15、onal market must fall into the range with domestic exchange rates of the two countries as the two extremes. When we talk about how to determine the real international exchange rate we could only imagine that a serious co

16、mpetition between the two countries determined the real international exchange rate. We could also say nothing about why a country might be more profitable to its trade partner and why the latter could only obtain less g

17、ain.,Theoretical Contribution of John Stuart Mill,Mill firstly revealed the mechanism of how to determine the rate of exchange in international market and how to distribute the total gains from trade between the two trad

18、ers by detailing specific relationship between them.,Dual Status of Traders,As what Mill argued that in trade between two countries each country takes status both as the seller and the buyer. As a seller each of them of

19、fers its exports to the other. And, simultaneously, each country imports particular goods from its trade partner as a buyer in international market. For any country in trade buyer is its original status while seller is

20、just the derived status.,Principle of Reciprocal Demand,That is to say the two participants of trade in Recardian model must establish a specific relationship with each other, this is the reciprocal demand relationship.

21、It is this reciprocal demand that actually determines the prevailing terms of trade and how much gains obtained by a particular country. In other words John Stuart Mill had resolved the problem of how to exactly reach t

22、he rate of exchange in international market. Comparative advantage and law of reciprocal demand due to John Stuart Mill constitute the two basic building blocks of the classical theory of international trade.,Reasons for

23、 Trade,In Mill’s view at least two reasons that will lead to the actual international trade: It is cheaper to import some products from the other country than to produce. It is difficult to seek more profitable employm

24、ent for the production resources.,Some things it is physically impossible to produce, except in particular circumstances of heat, soil, water, or atmosphere. But there are many things which, though they could be produced

25、 at home without difficulty, and in any quantity, are yet imported from a distance. The explanation which would be popularly given of this would be, that it is cheaper to import than to produce them: and this is the true

26、 reason.Just because this true reason “England might import corn from Poland and pay for it in cloth, even though England had a decided advantage over Poland in the production of both the one and the other. England migh

27、t send cottons to Portugal in exchange for wine, although Portugal might be able to produce cottons with a less amount of labor and capital than England”.,Profit Equalization in the Home Country,Mill argued that these so

28、rts of trade could only take place between two countries separated from each other with a long distance rather between the two places in the same country. Mill noticed, trade could not happen between adjacent places bec

29、ause factor movement makes it possible to reach profit equalization thus no one will enjoy advantages over the other traders. An example of profit equalization: If the north bank of the Thames possessed an advantage

30、 over the south bank in the production of shoes, no shoes would be produced on the south side; the shoemakers would remove themselves and their capitals to the north bank, or would have established themselves there origi

31、nally. The shoemakers could increase their profits by simply crossing a river.,Profit Differentiation among Countries,Between distant places, and especially between different countries, profits may continue different bec

32、ause persons do not usually remove themselves or their capitals to a distant place without a very strong motive. It needs but a small motive to transplant capital, or even persons, from Warwickshire to Yorkshire; but a

33、much greater to make them remove to India, the colonies, or Ireland. To France, Germany, Switzerland, capital moves perhaps as readily as to the colonies; the differences of language and government being scarcely so gre

34、at a hindrance as climate and distance. To countries still barbarous, or, like Russia and Turkey, only beginning to be civilized, capital will not migrate, unless under the inducement of a very great extra profit.,Profi

35、t Inequalities among Countries Cause Trade,Between all distant places therefore in some degree, but especially between different countries, there may exist great inequalities in return to labor and capital, without causi

36、ng them to move from one place to the other in such quantity as to level those inequalities. The capital belonging to a country will, to a great extent, remain in the country, even if there be no mode of employing it in

37、 which it would not be more productive elsewhere. Yet even a country thus circumstanced might, and probable would, carry on trade with other countries.,What is Commerce?,Commerce is virtually a mode of cheapening produc

38、tion; and in all such cases the consumer is the person ultimately benefited; the dealer, in the end, is sure to get his profit, whether the buyer obtains much or little for his money.（所謂商業(yè)貿(mào)易實(shí)質(zhì)上只是使生產(chǎn)成本更為便宜的一種手段。不論在什么情況下，

39、消費(fèi)者都是最終的受益者。商人當(dāng)然也可以從貿(mào)易中獲得利益，但這必須以消費(fèi)者愿意花多少錢購(gòu)買他們的商品為前提。）,Trade Benefit,Concretely speaking, in Mill’s ideas international trade will at least bring the traders with two sorts of benefit: First of all it would be possible

40、for a country to acquire some products which could consumed by its people, but can not be produced by the country with the existing production circumstances; Secondly, it is possible for all the participants of trade to

41、 bring their productivity into a much fuller play. That will necessarily raise the overall productivity of the whole world up to a high level and consequently increase the universal welfare of the people.  The high

42、er world productivity derived from the comparative advantages enjoyed by the traders is the ultimate source of the gains from trade.,Source of Trade Benefit,What consists the benefit of international exchanges, or in oth

43、er words, foreign commerce. Setting aside its enabling countries to obtain commodities which they could not themselves produce at all, its advantage consists in a more efficient employment of the productive forces of the

44、 world.The higher world productivity derived from the comparative advantages enjoyed by the traders is the ultimate source of the gains from trade.,Produce both for Itself and for the Other,If two countries which trade

45、with each other attempted, as far as was physically possible, to produce for themselves what they now import from one another, the labor and capital of the two countries would not be so productive, the two together would

46、 not obtain from their industry so great a quantity of commodities, as when each employ itself in producing, both for itself and for the other, the things in which its labor is relatively most efficient.,Comparative Adva

47、ntages from Altogether Inferiority,It is possible that one of the two countries may be altogether inferior to the other in productive capacities, and that its labor and capital could be employed to greatest advantage by

48、being removed bodily to the other. While the labor and capital of a country remain in the country, they are most beneficially employed in producing, for foreign markets as well as for its own, the things in which it lie

49、s under the least disadvantage, if there be none in which it possesses an advantage.,Comparative Advantages Determine Trade Patterns,Trade pattern between the two countries, in other words, what country would exports and

50、 imports what commodities, must be determined according to each country’s comparatively advantageous status. That implies a country must export its comparatively advantageous product and import some other product in whi

51、ch it dose not have comparative advantage.It is not a difference in the absolute cost of production, which determines the interchanges, but a difference in the comparative cost. (決定國(guó)與國(guó)之間交換行為的不是絕對(duì)生產(chǎn)成本的差別，而是相對(duì)生產(chǎn)成本的差異。

52、),As Mill said: It (a country) would export articles of some sort, even to places which could make them with less labor than itself; because those countries, supposing them to have an advantage over it in all productions

53、, would have a greater advantage in some things than in others, and would find it their interest to import the articles in which their advantage was smallest, that they might employ more of their labor and capital on tho

54、se in which it was greatest. 一個(gè)國(guó)家將對(duì)外出口商品，甚至將商品出口到那些可以比本國(guó)用更少勞動(dòng)投入就能生產(chǎn)該種商品的國(guó)度。原因在于，哪些國(guó)家，假定它們?cè)谒泄I(yè)上都要優(yōu)于本國(guó)，而且它們?cè)谀承┕I(yè)上的優(yōu)勢(shì)要比在其他工業(yè)上更為突出，將會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，進(jìn)口那些優(yōu)勢(shì)最小的工業(yè)的產(chǎn)品，同時(shí)將它們的資本與勞動(dòng)用于又是最大的工業(yè)，對(duì)它們說(shuō)來(lái)是十分有利的。It may be to our advantage to pro

55、cure iron from Sweden in exchange for cottons, even though the mines of England as well as her manufactories should be more productive than those of Sweden; for if we have an advantage of one-half in cottons, and only an

56、 advantage of a quarter in iron. 如果英格蘭同瑞典相比，在棉花生產(chǎn)上領(lǐng)先二分之一，在冶鐵生產(chǎn)只領(lǐng)先四分之一，那么，盡管英格蘭的采礦業(yè)和冶鐵業(yè)的生產(chǎn)力要高于瑞典，對(duì)英格蘭來(lái)說(shuō)，用棉花向瑞典進(jìn)口鐵仍是有利之舉。,School of Demand vs. School of Supply,John Stuart Mill particularly put his stress on the side

57、of demand when he initiated his so-called reciprocal demand theory. In his view import, or in other words, demand, must be of much more importance than export in determining the real terms of trade. That respect must be

58、an obvious character of Mill’s ideas on international trade. Mill strongly argued that the only direct advantage of foreign commerce consists in imports and consumers are the ultimate beneficiaries of foreign trade

59、. Indeed, exports are very important for a country. The significance of exports, however, is only expressed as the means of payment for imports from abroad. That is to say in Mill’s idea when a country participate trade

60、it firstly takes the status as a demander. Another status of a trader, supplier, is just derived there from.,School of Demand vs. School of Supply,That is very much different from his predecessors, Adam Smith and David R

61、icardo, who insisted that trade would open a larger more profitable market for countries whose techniques and skills of producing commodities were superior to their competitors. Therefore, trade directly implies the inc

62、reasing the capacity of those countries to offer more goods in international market. Only with such increase in production can the owners of capital, i.e. the producers, obtain the real benefits from trade.  Thus i

63、n the development of international trade theory John Stuart Mill is one of the famous representatives of the school of demand, while Adam Smith and David Ricardo could be concluded into the school of supply.,The Only Dir

64、ect Advantage of Trade,Mill wrote as the follows: The only direct advantage of foreign commerce consists in the imports. A country obtains things which it either could not have produced at all, or which it must have pro

65、duced at a greater expense of capital and labor than the cost of the things which it exports to pay for them.,How to Determine Value of Imports?,The value of commodities produced at the same place, or in places sufficien

66、tly adjacent for capital to move freely between them—let us say, for simplicity, of commodities produced in the same country—depend (temporary fluctuations apart) upon their cost of production. But the value of a commod

67、ity brought from a distant place, especially from a foreign country, does not depend upon its cost of production in the place from whence it comes. On what, then, does it depend? The value of things in any place depends

68、 upon the cost of its acquisition in that place; which, in the case of the imported articles, means the cost of production of the things which is exported to pay for it.,An Example of Value Determination in Trade,The val

69、ue, then, in any country, of a foreign commodity, depend upon the quantity of home produce which must be given to the foreign country in exchange for it. In other words, the values of foreign commodities depend upon the

70、terms of international exchange. What, then do these depend upon? What is it which, in the case supposed, causes a pipe of wine from Spain to be exchanged with England for exactly that quantity of cloth? It is not their