chapter 2 speech sounds

1、,Chapter 2Speech Sounds,IntroductionAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various persp

2、ectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.,Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.,Three main areas:Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production

3、of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.,Phonology is the study of the sound patte

4、rns and sound systems of languages. It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’ (Crystal, 1997:162).In phonology we normally begi

5、n by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in dif

6、ferent languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.,2.1 How speech sounds a

7、re made,2.1.1 Speech organs,,,Speech organs(vocal organs)(言語器官): those part of the human body involved in the production of speechPart of the body that are involved in the production of speech: the lungs（肺），the trachea

8、(氣管), the throat（咽喉）, the nose and the mouthThe mouth: the tongue, the plate(腭)The throat: pharynx (upper)(咽), larynx (lower)(喉頭)The vocal tract(聲道): the pharynx, mouth, and noseThe mouth: the oral cavity(口腔)The nos

9、e: the nasal cavity(鼻腔),,,,,Vocal folds(vocal cords, vocal bands): a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adam’s apple. The vocal folds are either (a) apart,

10、(b) close together, or (c) totally closed.Voiceless(清音): the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass easily [p,s,t]Voiced(濁音): the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other

11、 [b,z,d]Glottal stop(喉塞音): the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass between them,,Position of the vocal folds: voiceless,發(fā)音器官的構造及其作用,世界上所有的聲音都是物體振動產生的聲波在介質中傳遞的結果，因此聲音的產生離不開振動的動力、振動的源頭和振動的共鳴腔。語音說到底也是一種聲音，因而也離不

12、開振動的動力、源頭和共鳴腔，只不過語音是由人類的發(fā)音器官各部分協同動作所產生的，研究語音的產生，就必須首先了解發(fā)音器官的構造和功能。 人類的發(fā)音器官可以分為三大部分：呼吸器官、喉頭聲帶與聲腔（口腔、鼻腔與咽腔），我們詳細介紹各部分的構造和功能。,發(fā)音器官的構造及其作用,1 呼吸器官 呼吸器官主要包括肺、氣管和支氣管。肺部的收縮和擴張可以產生呼氣和吸氣的氣流變化，這種氣流變化不僅為人類的生存提供氧氣和二氧化碳的交換，而且為語音的發(fā)出

13、提供了振動的動力。世界上多數語言的語音利用呼氣作為動力，非洲有些語言還利用吸氣發(fā)音。,發(fā)音器官的構造及其作用,2 喉頭和聲帶 喉頭由軟骨構成，呈圓筒狀，上接咽腔，下接氣管，喉頭的外表就是喉結。喉頭軟骨構成的"圓筒"中有一對聲帶，聲帶是兩片富有彈性的唇性肌肉，其前后兩端都粘附在軟骨上。兩片聲帶之間的空隙叫聲門，聲門又可以分為音門和氣門兩部分。由于肌肉的松弛緊縮和軟骨的開合回轉，聲帶可以放松或拉緊，聲門可以打開和關

14、閉，從而產生不同的氣流狀態(tài)。聲帶的兩小片肌肉可以在氣流的沖擊下振動，這種振動產生了語音中的濁音。所以聲帶的主要作用是振動的源頭之一--濁音的音源。,發(fā)音器官的構造及其作用,3 聲腔 聲腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。 口腔可分為上下兩個部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齒、齒齦、硬腭、軟腭和小舌。齒齦是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齒齦之后口腔上壁堅硬的部分，軟腭是硬腭后面的柔軟部分。軟腭后面連接的是小舌，軟腭與小舌可以上下移動。口腔的下

15、面部分包括下唇、下齒和舌頭。舌頭是口腔里最重要、最靈活的器官，它可以分為舌尖、舌葉、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌頭的最前端，舌頭自然平伸時，舌尖后面與齒齦相對的部分叫舌葉。舌葉之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分為前、中、后三部分。其中相對于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相對于軟腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌跟。,發(fā)音器官的構造及其作用,鼻腔位于口腔的上方，好像一個是樓上，一個是樓下，上腭就是樓板，而軟腭帶動小舌就像一扇活動的樓門。（解釋：口音 鼻音

16、 鼻化音）咽腔位于喉頭的上面，是一個管狀的三岔口，上通鼻腔，前通口腔，下通喉頭和食道。在上述各發(fā)音器官中，有些器官如唇、舌、軟腭、小舌、聲帶等是能活動的，叫作主動發(fā)音器官；有些器官如上齒、齒齦、硬腭等是不能活動的，叫作被動發(fā)音器官。我們發(fā)音的時候，常由主動發(fā)音器官向被動發(fā)音器官接觸或靠近，讓氣流沖擊產生振動而發(fā)音。聲腔是人類最重要的發(fā)音器官，聲腔中又以口腔及其中的各種器官作用最大。,2.1.2 The IPA,The Intern

17、ational Phonetic Association (IPA)(標音法) 1897The International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) 1888—first versionThe latest version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005. In the IPA chart, the sound

18、 segments are grouped into CONSONANTS and VOWELS.,,The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005),,2.2 Consonants and Vowels元音和輔音,The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.Consonants are produced

19、 by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.A vowel is produced without obstruction of the air so that air escapes in a relatively uni

20、mpeded way through the mouth or nose.,,The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants

21、and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.,2.2.1 Consonants,In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment inv

22、olves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors.,The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articula

23、tion can be accomplished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approachi

24、ng each other.,Stop (or Plosive) Oral & NasalFricativeApproximantLateral TrillTap or FlapAffricate,,1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved [p,b,t,d,k,g] 2)Fricative(擦音): clos

25、e approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed [f,v, θ,δ,s, z,∫,з,h]3)Approximant(通音): an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract bein

26、g narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced[w, r, j ],5) Lateral (邊音): the obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or bot

27、h sides of the tongu and the roof of the mouth [l]6) Trill /roll (顫音/卷舌音)：an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream [r]7) Tap and flap (閃音)8）Affricate (塞擦音):involve more than one of these manners of articulatio

28、n in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.,The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be p

29、roduced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:,BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGl

30、ottal,,,,1) Bilabial (雙唇音): made with the two lips2) Labiodental (唇齒音): made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth3) Dental (齒音): made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth4)Alveolar [ælvi?l

31、?,ælvi?ul?] (齒齦音): made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge,5) Postalveolar(后齒齦音):made with the tongue tip or the back of the alveolar ridge6) Retroflex(卷舌音):made with the tongue tip or blade cur

32、led back7) Palatal(腭音):made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate8)Velar(軟腭音):made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate,,9) Uvular[英][ju:vjul?] [美][juvj?l?] (小舌音): made with the back of the t

33、ongue and the uvula10) Pharyngeal[færind?i:?l] (咽音): made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx11) Glottal(聲門音): made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other,2.2.2 Vowels,Ca

34、rdinal vowels (基本元音) :First suggested by A. J. Ellis in 1844 a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined; provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. represent extrem

35、e points of a theoretical vowel spaceThus, the cardinal vowel diagram in the IPA is a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points,based on a combination of articulatory and auditory judgment

36、s, the front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height(the highest position, the lowest position and two intermediate levels). The system defines eight “primary” cardinal vow

37、els: [i][e][ε][α][a] (unrounded) [>][o][u] (rounded),Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918),Black: IPARed: English,Vowel glides(元音音渡）,Pure/Monophthong[m?n?ufθ??] vowels(純元音或單元音): Vowels whose quality r

38、emains constant throughout the articulationVowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of qualityDiphthong[d?fθ??], (雙元音): a single movement(way, tide, how, toy, toe) of tongue is involvedTriphthong[trifθ??]

39、 (三重元音): a double movement(wire, tower) of tongue,2.2.3 The sounds of English,The most common accent in the teaching of English: RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP)(BBC English, Oxford English). The King’s/Queen’s EnglishIt ori

40、ginates historically in the southeast of England and is spoken by the upper-middles and upper classes throughout England.In the USA, the widely accepted accent used is GENERAL AMERICAN (GA)English consonants,,Describe

41、consonants,Place of articulationManner of articulationVoicing Eg. [p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative,English vowels,,F

42、our basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (ten

43、se vs. lax or long vs. short)4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded),We can now describe the English vowels in this way:[??] high front tense unrounded vowel[?] high back lax rounded vowel[?] mid central lax unrounde

44、d vowel[?] low back lax rounded vowel,2.3 From phonetics to phonology,2.3.1 Coarticulation and phonetic transcriptionsSpeech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next i

45、n a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb.,,When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulati

46、on.If the sound becomes more like the following sound (lamb), it is known as anticipatory coarticulation (逆化協同發(fā)音). If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound (map), it is perseverative coarticulation (重

47、復性協同發(fā)音).The former is more common than the latter.,The fact that the vowel [?] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a

48、 diacritic to the top of the symbol [?], as [??].,By the same token, we can use these diacritics for recording other variations of the same sound.Take [p] for example, it is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.

49、This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [ph], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].,For most purposes, however, it is not necessary to indicate such variations

50、 of a sound every time.When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcriptio

51、n. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].,2.3.2 Phonemes 音位,Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system. Phoneticians are

52、concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.,Crystal: ‘Phonological analysis relies on th

53、e principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not’. Minimal pairs testPhonemes,,Minimal pairs(最小對立體):Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certa

54、in sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word.e.g. [t] and [d]: tin/din, tie/die [i:] and [i]: beat/bit, bead/bidThese important units are called phonemes,,MINIMAL PAIR：Two words in a language which differ fr

55、om each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning. For example, the English words bear and pear are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phoneme /b/and/p

56、/,,The phoneme theoryPhoneme: units of explicit sound contrast, built on the idea of contrastLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between aspirated [ph] and unaspirated

57、[p] is not phonemic.,,By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (//), while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]).In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions repres

58、ent the “broad” transcription,2.3.3 Allophones,[p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are

59、said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.,/p/ ? [p] / [s] _____ [ph] elsewhereThis phenomenon of v

60、ariation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. Another example: the phoneme /l/It is pronounced differently in lead and deal.,Velarization: clear l and dar

61、k l/?/ ?[?] / _____ V[?] / V _____Think about tell and telling!,Some phones are in complementary distribution, but there is another restriction for phones to fall into the same phoneme. Phonetic similarity: t

62、he allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Sometimes a phoneme may also have free variants. Free variants and free variation:,,For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some sp

63、eakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways. The difference may be caused by dialect, habit, or individual preference, instead of any d

64、istribution rule. Free variation is also seen in regional differences. Either, direction,2.4 Phonological processes and phonological rules,2.4.1 Assimilation,Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instanc

65、es of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. The converse

66、process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.,English Fricative Devoicing,,These changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which a TARGET or AFFECTED SEGMENT

67、undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound.,,Any phonological process must have three aspects to it:A) a set of sounds

68、 to undergo the processB) a set of sounds produced by the processC) a set of situations in which the process applies,/v/ ? [f] /z/ ? [s] etc.voiced fricative ? voiceless / ____ voicelessThis is a PHONOLOGICAL RUL

69、E. A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound. Nasalization rule:[-nasal] ? [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]Dentalization rule:[-dental] ? [dental] /