外文翻譯---建筑中的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計及建筑材料

1、<p>　　Structure in Design of Architecture</p><p>　　And Structural Material</p><p>　　We have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in

2、 such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex ch

3、allenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.</p><p>　　Such a hierarchy is necessary

4、 if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability

5、 to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .</p><p>　　The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, ac

6、tivity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determin

7、ants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in</p><p>　　At the sch

8、ematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this w

9、ill require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.<

10、/p><p>　　At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate d

11、esign of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geome

12、tric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem in</p><p>　　When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it

13、means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be

14、 on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, sinc</p><p>　　To summarize: At Level I, the archi

15、tect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At

16、 Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of

17、 major subsystems need be</p><p>　　Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.</p><p>　　The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and maso

18、nry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or cla

19、ps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling,</p>

20、<p>　　Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up

21、to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advant

22、age of steel is its tensile force which, as we have seen, tends to pull</p><p>　　Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then g

23、round into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with diff

24、erent strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great ten</p><p>　　They also complement each other in another

25、way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced conc

26、rete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is th

27、at steel does not</p><p>　　The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick

28、 for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and long

29、er spans.</p><p>　　Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let i

30、n light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials

31、such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.</p><p>　　Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting. A

32、rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Rive

33、ting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them under high heat.</p><p>　　Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforce

34、ment. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a con

35、crete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the othe

36、r (and </p><p>　　Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses fo

37、r this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.</p><p>　　建筑中的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計及建筑材料</p><p>　　建筑師必須從一種全局的角度出發(fā)去處理建筑設(shè)計中應(yīng)該考慮到的實用活動，物質(zhì)及象征性的需求。因此，他或他試圖將有相互有關(guān)的空間形式分體系組成的總體系形成一個建筑環(huán)境。這是一種復(fù)雜的挑戰(zhàn)

38、，為適應(yīng)這一挑戰(zhàn)，建筑師需要有一個分階段的設(shè)計過程，其至少要分三個“反饋”考慮階段：方案階段，初步設(shè)計階段和施工圖設(shè)計階段。</p><p>　　這樣的分階段涉及是必需的，它可使設(shè)計者避免受很多細(xì)節(jié)的困惑，而這些細(xì)節(jié)往往會干擾設(shè)計者的基本思路。實際上，我們可以說一個成功的建筑設(shè)計師應(yīng)該具備一種從很多細(xì)節(jié)中分辨出更為基本的內(nèi)容的能力。</p><p>　　概念構(gòu)思階段的任務(wù)時提出和斟酌全局場

39、地規(guī)劃，活動相互作用及房屋形式方案。為實現(xiàn)這些，建筑師必須注意場地各部分的基本使用，空間組織，并應(yīng)用象征手法確定其具體形式。這就要求建筑師首先按照基本功能和空間關(guān)系對一項建筑設(shè)計首先構(gòu)思并模擬出一個抽象的建筑物，然后再對這一抽象的總體空間進(jìn)行深入探究。在開始勾畫具體的建筑形似時，應(yīng)考慮基本的場所跳進(jìn)加以修改。</p><p>　　在方案階段，如果設(shè)計者能夠形象的預(yù)見所作方案的結(jié)構(gòu)整體性，并要考慮施工階段可行性及經(jīng)

40、濟性，那將是非常有幫助的。這就要求建筑師或者過問工程是能夠從主要分體系之間的關(guān)系而不是從構(gòu)建細(xì)節(jié)去構(gòu)思總體結(jié)構(gòu)方案。這種能夠易于反饋以改進(jìn)空間形式方案。</p><p>　　在初步設(shè)計階段，建筑師的重點工作應(yīng)是詳細(xì)化可能成為最終方案的設(shè)計，這是建筑師對結(jié)構(gòu)的要求業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)移到做分體系具體方案的粗略設(shè)計上。在這一階段應(yīng)該完成對結(jié)構(gòu)布置的中等程度的確定，重點論證和設(shè)計主要分體系已確定它們的主要幾何尺寸，構(gòu)件和相互關(guān)系。這樣

41、就可以依據(jù)全局設(shè)計方案，確定并解決各分體系的相互影響以及設(shè)計難題。顧問工程師在這一過程中作用重大，但各細(xì)部的考慮還留有選擇余地。當(dāng)然，這些初步設(shè)計階段所作的決定仍可以反饋回取使方案概念進(jìn)一步改善，或甚至可能有重大變化。</p><p>　　當(dāng)設(shè)計者和顧問工程師對初始階段設(shè)計方案的可行性滿意時，就意味著全部設(shè)計的基本問題已經(jīng)解決，不會再因細(xì)節(jié)問題而發(fā)生大的變化。這是工作重點將再次轉(zhuǎn)移，進(jìn)入細(xì)部設(shè)計。在這一階段將重點

42、完善各分體系的細(xì)節(jié)設(shè)計。此時包括結(jié)構(gòu)工程在內(nèi)的各個領(lǐng)域的專家的作用將十分突出，應(yīng)為所有施工的細(xì)節(jié)都必須設(shè)計出來。這一階段的決定，可能會反饋到第二階段并導(dǎo)致一些變化。如果第一階段和第二階段的設(shè)計做的深入，那么在最初兩個階段所得到的總體結(jié)論和最后階段的細(xì)節(jié)的重新設(shè)計不再是問題。當(dāng)然，整個實際過程應(yīng)該是逐步發(fā)展的過程，從創(chuàng)造和細(xì)化（改進(jìn)）總體設(shè)計概念直到做出精確的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計和細(xì)部構(gòu)造。</p><p>　　綜上所述：在第

43、一階段，建筑師必須首先用概念的方式來確定基本方案的全部空間形式的可行性。在第一階段，專業(yè)人員的合作是有意義的，但僅限于行程總的構(gòu)思方面；在第二階段，建筑師應(yīng)該能夠用圖形來確定各分體系的需求，并且通過估計關(guān)鍵構(gòu)件的性能來證明其相互作用的可行性。也就是說，主要分體系的性能只須做到一定深度，需要驗證他們的基本形式和相互關(guān)系是協(xié)調(diào)一致的。這需要與工程師進(jìn)行更加詳細(xì)與明確的合作；在第三階段，建筑師和專業(yè)人員必須繼續(xù)合作完成所有構(gòu)件的設(shè)計細(xì)節(jié)，并制

44、定良好的施工文件。</p><p>　　當(dāng)然，這些設(shè)計的成功來源于建筑材料的發(fā)展與革新。</p><p>　　早期的建筑材料主要是木材和砌塊,如磚塊、石材或瓦片及其它類似的材料。磚和磚之間是由砂漿或者焦油狀的瀝青或其它粘合物粘結(jié)在一起。希臘人和羅馬人有時利用鐵棒或夾鉗來加固他們的建筑。例如,在雅典的帕臺農(nóng)神廟的柱子,就是由在水中也能變得如石材般堅硬的火山灰建成的。</p>&

45、lt;p>　　鋼材和水泥─現(xiàn)代最重要的兩種建筑材料,在19世紀(jì)得到了推廣。鋼材(從根本上說,是以鐵為主要成分并含有少量碳元素的合金),直到出現(xiàn)能夠限制其特殊用途(如制造刀刃)的費勞力的鑄造方法,才被鑄造出來。在1856年貝塞麥煉鋼法出現(xiàn)之后,鋼材就以較低的價格大量供應(yīng)。鋼材最大的優(yōu)點就是它的抗拉強度非常高,這也就是說,當(dāng)它在我們已知的能拉斷許多材料的一定拉力作用下,鋼材不會喪失它的強度。新的合金元素的加入,大大增加了鋼材的強度,并

46、消除的它的一些缺點。例如,鋼材在應(yīng)力不斷變化時所表現(xiàn)出的疲勞強度有所見減小的傾向。</p><p>　　現(xiàn)代的水泥(也叫波特蘭水泥),發(fā)明于1824年。它是一種由石灰石和粘土加熱后碾成粉末的混合物。它是在施工現(xiàn)場與砂子、骨料(小石塊、碎石、礫石)及水,拌制成混凝土。各成分含量的不同, 拌制出的混凝土強度和重量也不同?；炷翍?yīng)用十分廣泛,它可以澆筑、泵送甚至噴射成所有形狀。而鋼材有很高的抗拉強度和混凝土具有很高的抗

47、壓強度,因此,這兩種材料相互彌補了各自的不足。</p><p>　　鋼筋和混凝土也在以另一種方式互補,就是它們幾乎有著相同的收縮率和膨脹率。因此它們可以在拉力與壓力同時存在的條件下共同工作?；炷林屑尤脘摻?可以制成鋼筋混凝土梁或其它鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件以抵抗出現(xiàn)的拉力?；炷梁弯摻钪g形成一種使它們粘結(jié)在一起的粘結(jié)力,這個力使鋼筋在混凝土中不會產(chǎn)生滑移。酸會腐蝕鋼筋,而混凝土?xí)a(chǎn)生與酸相反的堿性化學(xué)反應(yīng)。</p

48、><p>　　結(jié)構(gòu)鋼和混凝土的使用是傳統(tǒng)的施工方式產(chǎn)生的主要變化。它使人們在建造多層建筑時,不再必須使用以石材或磚砌筑的厚墻了,并且也使建造一個防火地面變得簡單多了。這些變化都有利于降低施工的費用,而且這使建造更高更大的結(jié)構(gòu)變成可能。</p><p>　　現(xiàn)代建筑物的重量由鋼或混凝土框架來承受,因此墻體不再做承重墻。它們已經(jīng)變成能夠抵擋風(fēng)雨并進(jìn)行采光的幕墻了。在早期的鋼或混凝土框架建筑中,幕墻

49、一般由砌塊建成,這些砌塊有著和承重墻一樣堅實的外觀。但是現(xiàn)在, 幕墻則一般由諸如玻璃、鋁、塑料或各種混合材料等輕質(zhì)材料建成的。</p><p>　　在鋼材建造中的另一種優(yōu)點是梁之間的連接方法。多年來,傳統(tǒng)的連接方法是鉚接。鉚釘是一種有一頭看起來像沒有螺紋的圓頭螺絲釘。在現(xiàn)場施工時,鉚釘被加熱,穿過剛片間的孔洞,在另一端靠錘擊形成另一個頭以使之固定就位。現(xiàn)在鉚接大多已經(jīng)被焊接取代,焊接是一種通過在高溫下鋼材使它們連

50、接在一起的連接方式。</p><p>　　預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土是鋼筋混凝土的一種改良方式。將鋼筋彎成各種形狀,使鋼筋具有一定的拉應(yīng)力。然后它們被用于預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土,這種施工方法有兩種。一種方法是在混凝土中預(yù)留與鋼筋形狀相同的孔道,當(dāng)鋼筋穿過孔道后,通過向孔道灌注砂漿或粘結(jié)劑使鋼筋和混凝土粘結(jié)在一起。另一種更常用的方法是將鋼筋置于與成品構(gòu)件外形相符的模板底部,然后在鋼筋周圍澆注混凝土。預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土用鋼量和用混凝土量都比較少。