外文翻譯--建設(shè)項目管理方法的比較

1、<p><b>　　畢業(yè)設(shè)計（論文）</b></p><p><b>　　外文翻譯</b></p><p>　　題 目 建設(shè)項目管理方法的比較 </p><p>　　專 業(yè) 工程管理(工程造價管理)EB</p><p>　　班 級 09級2班

2、 </p><p>　　學(xué) 生 蒲成然 </p><p>　　指導(dǎo)教師 郭小宏 </p><p><b>　　重慶交通大學(xué)</b></p><p><b>　　2013 年6 月</b></p><p&g

3、t;　　建設(shè)項目管理方法的比較</p><p>　　作者：李百毅1,鄭 敏2, 李百戰(zhàn)2, AUSTIN S3, THORPE T3</p><p>　?。?. 西南交通大學(xué)建筑學(xué)院，地址：中國成都 郵編：610031；</p><p>　　2. 重慶大學(xué)城市建設(shè)與環(huán)境學(xué)院，地址：中國重慶 400030；</p><p>　　3. 拉夫堡大

4、學(xué)土木與建筑工程部門，地址：英國萊斯特郡 郵編：LE11 3TU。）</p><p>　　【摘要】：人們敏銳地意識到建筑業(yè)需要改善其管理過程。目前，施工管理方面有四個主要的思想流派。這個論文說明了最近的研究成果,其主要任務(wù)是比較這些方法。重點(diǎn)將放在這些問題上：這個學(xué)派的理論依據(jù)是什么？把計劃放在什么位置？在施工管理項目中每一種思想流派的方法或建議是什么？通過對每種方法在今天高度復(fù)雜的建設(shè)項目管理中的運(yùn)用能力進(jìn)行一

5、次深入討論，然后給出建議。</p><p>　　【關(guān)鍵詞】：建設(shè)；項目管理；方法</p><p><b>　　1.介紹</b></p><p>　　在一個占主導(dǎo)地位的主題文獻(xiàn)中說道，從整體上看建筑行業(yè)是收效甚微的有</p><p>　　著低而不可靠的利潤率，許多項目就完全交付，預(yù)算和質(zhì)量的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)而言是不可預(yù)知的, [1-

6、2]。</p><p>　　從20世紀(jì)90年代開始，在世界范圍內(nèi)，人們領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的各種運(yùn)動，采取的各種措施以及實(shí)行的方案都力求改變并改善建筑業(yè)的性能。其中包括英國的“建筑業(yè)的反思”[3]，英美兩國的“精益建造”[4-5]，新加坡的“21世紀(jì)建筑”[6]，和香港的“構(gòu)造卓越”[7]。在這些運(yùn)動之后，建筑業(yè)開始采用創(chuàng)新型的工作方式，其中的一部分在近20年廣泛應(yīng)用于工程施工與制造業(yè)領(lǐng)域，包括精益生產(chǎn)，標(biāo)桿管理以及供應(yīng)鏈管理[

7、8]。</p><p>　　有效的項目管理是建設(shè)工程成功的關(guān)鍵已普遍為人們所信奉[9-10]。之前的研究已經(jīng)表明有效地建設(shè)計劃可以顯著地提高項目的完成幾率，更準(zhǔn)時[11]，更安全[12]和更合理的預(yù)算[13]。在幾千年前我們就發(fā)現(xiàn)人們運(yùn)用大量的技術(shù)來管理他們的項目，如埃及人建造他們的金字塔，羅馬人建造他們的道路，中國人建造長城，但管理學(xué)科卻是相對較新，現(xiàn)代項目管理的起源可以追溯到20世紀(jì)50年代晚期，那時關(guān)鍵路徑

8、法和計劃評審技術(shù)剛開始產(chǎn)生于大型國防和參展合同。建筑業(yè)是“首先是采用項目管理的思想”[14]，也貢獻(xiàn)了大量重要的金融方面的，有較強(qiáng)專業(yè)性的資源以促進(jìn)項目管理的發(fā)展[15]。當(dāng)前，施工管理中主要有四種學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)。這些觀點(diǎn)將在下面進(jìn)行討論。討論的關(guān)鍵問題則主要有：此種學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)的理論依據(jù)是什么？計劃的地位是什么？在項目工程管理中應(yīng)用了哪些技術(shù)？</p><p>　　2.項目管理知識體系</p><p

9、>　　這類管理有一段相當(dāng)“長”的歷史，其演變的由以下因素影響：1,現(xiàn)代管理理論（如組織設(shè)計和團(tuán)隊建設(shè)）；2基于計算機(jī)的規(guī)劃技術(shù)（如關(guān)鍵路徑法和計劃評審技術(shù)）。有些研究中提到這類管理通常因其歷史而稱其“傳統(tǒng)項目管理辦法”[16].今天，這種方法被大量用于在項目管理協(xié)會(PMI)的項目管理知識體系(PMBOK)，一些研究因此也認(rèn)為這種風(fēng)格的管理是“PM理論/方法”[17].</p><p>　　作為這種方法的管

10、理理論依據(jù)，KOSKELA et al[18]將這種PM理論模式劃分成為了管理理論和項目理論。關(guān)于管理理論，他們指出了PM理論模式是基于三個理論：（1）詳細(xì)規(guī)劃是在實(shí)現(xiàn)結(jié)構(gòu)化和控制原計劃在實(shí)施中的任何偏差之中進(jìn)行管理規(guī)劃[19]。（2）假設(shè)計劃任務(wù)能在任務(wù)開始時被傳達(dá)給執(zhí)行著的調(diào)度模型；（3）恒溫器模型，假設(shè)執(zhí)行有一個標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，執(zhí)行情況能在輸出端檢測，進(jìn)程很容易就可以被控制中心糾正，以達(dá)到標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。關(guān)于項目理論，他們指出傳統(tǒng)的項目管理方法基本適

11、用于圖1所示的變換模型，該觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為生產(chǎn)就是輸入到輸出的轉(zhuǎn)換，生產(chǎn)管理就是將總的轉(zhuǎn)換分解為初等轉(zhuǎn)換和任務(wù)表從而減少輸入成本并改善操作效率。</p><p>　　圖1轉(zhuǎn)換觀念[20]</p><p>　　至于規(guī)劃在此管理方法中的地位，規(guī)劃是五個項目管理過程中的一部分，并且這五個步驟組成了一個封閉的環(huán)。這個方法采用了“規(guī)劃-實(shí)施-檢查-行動 循環(huán)”的概念。根據(jù)建筑管理中的PM管理模式，與“規(guī)劃”

12、一致的規(guī)劃過程引出一個由執(zhí)行過程執(zhí)行的，和“實(shí)施”一致的執(zhí)行計劃，然后監(jiān)管和控制過程與“檢查-行動”部分一致，并得出更多的計劃[21]。</p><p>　　KOSKELA et al[22]并不贊同這種“類規(guī)劃型管理”的項目規(guī)劃和控制，他還指出PM管理法認(rèn)為管理過程與組織結(jié)果有強(qiáng)烈的因果關(guān)系。在假設(shè)將計劃轉(zhuǎn)化為行動是一個簡單的過程的情況下，規(guī)劃生產(chǎn)和行動有本質(zhì)上的關(guān)聯(lián)。他們聲明“雖然，從計劃到實(shí)施的轉(zhuǎn)換只有在資

13、源充足并且行動之間的互相依賴性低的情況下才有可能”。同樣的，LAUFER[23] 還聲明傳統(tǒng)的項目管理方法相對于簡單的沒有較高不確定性的項目來說是一個有效地工具，而在管理如今時刻處于變化的環(huán)境中的復(fù)雜型項目來說就稍顯不足了。</p><p>　　為了實(shí)現(xiàn)項目管理，PM管理方法中的關(guān)鍵路線法和工作結(jié)構(gòu)分解被認(rèn)為是項目管理的專業(yè)知識，也證明了“適用于項目管理的知識基本只適用與項目管理（關(guān)鍵路線法和工作結(jié)構(gòu)分解）”。[

14、24,4]</p><p><b>　　3.精益建造</b></p><p>　　該方法首先由KOSKELA[4] 提出，之后得到幾個出版物的認(rèn)同[25-28]。精益建造起源于對過去20年的制造業(yè)以及服務(wù)業(yè)中的發(fā)展成就的觀察。人們相信這些發(fā)展都是因為一種新的生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)，并產(chǎn)生了“精益生產(chǎn)[29]”的概念。KOSKELA和HUOVILA認(rèn)為建筑業(yè)是“一種場所的生產(chǎn)，一種

15、臨時的多重組織”，并嘗試著將精益生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)應(yīng)用于建筑業(yè)[30].因此，精益建造的理論根源就是精益生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)，但是之后KOAKWLA提出了將生產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)換理論、生產(chǎn)流程理論和價值理論整合在一起的TFV模型，聲稱“TFV理論很大程度上解釋了建筑業(yè)相關(guān)的起源問題…因此，生產(chǎn)中的TFV理論應(yīng)該應(yīng)用于建筑業(yè)”[31].表1中總結(jié)了精益建造的相關(guān)理論。</p><p>　　表1 項目管理的理論依據(jù)[31]</p><

16、;p>　　理論科目 相關(guān)理論</p><p>　　項目 生產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)換、生產(chǎn)流程和價值</p><p>　　計劃 計劃管理</p><p><b>　　組織管理</b></p>

17、<p>　　管理 執(zhí)行 經(jīng)典信息論</p><p><b>　　語言/行為透視圖</b></p><p>　　控制 恒溫器模型</p><p><b>　　系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗?zāi)Ｐ?lt;/b></p>&

18、lt;p>　　英國建筑業(yè)在1997年采用了精益建造，并得到了具有廣泛影響力的“伊根報告[3]”的強(qiáng)烈支持。為了實(shí)現(xiàn)項目管理，像末位計劃員，附屬結(jié)構(gòu)矩陣，工作結(jié)構(gòu)，DePlan，供應(yīng)鏈管理的技術(shù)都應(yīng)用于工程項目管理，以作為精益生產(chǎn)配送系統(tǒng)的一部分。[32]</p><p>　　精益建設(shè)承認(rèn)在施工過程中建設(shè)項目的供應(yīng)鏈的依賴和變化，同時認(rèn)同在建設(shè)過程中產(chǎn)品的不確定性和過程的不確定性,因此說明了精益建設(shè)可以積極地

19、管理這些產(chǎn)品和過程的不確定性[33]。但是，Green批判應(yīng)用精益生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)的施工人員明顯忽略了一個重要的觀點(diǎn)，精益生產(chǎn)體系需要相當(dāng)大的人力成本。[34]同時，WINCH 專注于精益建設(shè)的理論依據(jù)并指出TFV理論的一些限制，例如：（1）過于強(qiáng)調(diào)“硬”管理（即強(qiáng)烈關(guān)注物理處理的材料作為一個工程問題）并忽略了“軟”管理（即缺乏對組織概念的分析）；（2）缺乏考慮風(fēng)險和不確定性的影響;（3）價值觀念的單一。[35]</p><

20、p>　　至于此方法中計劃的作用，WINCH指出精益建設(shè)理論家已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)了管理型計劃和組織型計劃的重要區(qū)別。[36]精益建設(shè)提倡管理型計劃和組織型計劃在建設(shè)計劃中的結(jié)合使用。[18]然而，在與18名英國實(shí)踐規(guī)劃人員的訪談中，WINCH和KELSEY發(fā)現(xiàn)“相比于參加團(tuán)隊管理的計劃中他們更傾向于提出管理計劃來支持工程管理團(tuán)隊的組織管理”。[36]</p><p>　　4.在項目中將建設(shè)當(dāng)作生產(chǎn)的理論</p&

21、gt;<p>　　這個學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)在WINCH所著的《項目管理：信息處理方法》一書中提到，并</p><p>　　被多個出版物認(rèn)同。[35-37]這個方法認(rèn)為建設(shè)項目管理是“一個全面的學(xué)科”，而不是“一些分離的專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的部分集合”。Winch指出“建設(shè)項目管理就是一個信息問題”，“信息管理中的根本問題是不確定性，換句話說缺少在指定時間中做出決定所需要的信息”[15]。</p><p&

22、gt;　　至于此方法的理論依據(jù)，就是 “管理本質(zhì)上就是組織創(chuàng)新—保證一個人或者一個小型團(tuán)隊有效地為客戶完成項目任務(wù)”[35]，KOSKELA 和 BALLARD 指出這個方法主要有兩個特征：（1）認(rèn)為項目就是組織行為；（2）認(rèn)為項目就是客戶于項目參與者的交易，包含四個理論依據(jù)：交易成本經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)，組織行為即信息處理系統(tǒng)，項目即減少不確定性和構(gòu)造方法的組織[17]。</p><p>　　關(guān)于計劃在此方法中的作用，此方法

23、認(rèn)為計劃即半管理，運(yùn)作學(xué)科，而不是策略學(xué)科。Winch指出在英國的施工管理中“計劃就是隨后行動框架的建設(shè)，并提出計劃以指導(dǎo)管理者按照組織管理計劃實(shí)施”[36]。此方法指出了計劃更多的交互進(jìn)程（即設(shè)計過程和計劃過程）和計劃更多線性進(jìn)程（即現(xiàn)場任務(wù)執(zhí)行）的不同需求。</p><p>　　此學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)清楚的表明，提高工程項目管理的規(guī)劃性能需要關(guān)注的是“執(zhí)行期中的不確定性，使計劃變得更困難執(zhí)行期變長”[15]。為了實(shí)現(xiàn)項目

24、管理，此方法要求不確定性的問題最好能被末位計劃者和關(guān)鍵線路確定。此方法認(rèn)為末位計劃者和關(guān)鍵線路應(yīng)高度互補(bǔ)，并建議兩者結(jié)合來處理工程項目管理中的戰(zhàn)略戰(zhàn)術(shù)問題。</p><p><b>　　5.同步管理</b></p><p>　　這種方法是首先介紹了，“同步管理:優(yōu)秀的基本工程項目的關(guān)鍵所在”,通過LAUFER et al[14],在他書中提到,“同步管理:動態(tài)環(huán)境中

25、的管理項目“[23]。</p><p>　　同步管理的發(fā)展是起源于特別的觀察“熟練的項目經(jīng)理能夠在更少的時間在不犧牲成本和質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)或離開客戶和用戶不滿意的條件下完成復(fù)雜的和不確定的基本工程項目”。系統(tǒng)研究后，LAUFER et al得出結(jié)論,“主項目經(jīng)理開發(fā)新的風(fēng)格的同步管理,他們不斷地編排爭先的要求”[14]。他指出,同步管理意味著“規(guī)劃系統(tǒng),使早期的(但不是過早)適當(dāng)?shù)臎Q策,涉及各方早,導(dǎo)致他們作為團(tuán)隊,操作

26、一流的通訊,用簡單的操作生產(chǎn),執(zhí)行項目的平行的早期階段 （在適當(dāng)?shù)陌秧椖糠纸夂?,監(jiān)測項目績效和環(huán)境,并且明智地調(diào)節(jié)項目的執(zhí)行一應(yīng)對產(chǎn)生的突發(fā)事件—一個優(yōu)秀而快速的充滿挑戰(zhàn)的項目”。[23]</p><p>　　這種方法強(qiáng)調(diào)了理解和管理的不確定性的項目管理的重要性。這組不確定性分為兩類:結(jié)束不確定性(要做的),并且意味著不確定性(應(yīng)該被完成的),并建議用兩個步驟來應(yīng)對不確定性：（1）相互依賴的任務(wù)因為高不確定性而

27、受到隔離困擾。（2）如果分離是不可能的,管理界面相互依賴的任務(wù),或有選擇性的采用冗余資源去吸收不確定性。</p><p>　　至于在此方法中的規(guī)劃的位置,這種方法采用了“活動周期”的概念,但不建議系統(tǒng)、綜合規(guī)劃和系統(tǒng)監(jiān)控。</p><p><b>　　6.討論</b></p><p>　　它清楚地表明,所有這些學(xué)術(shù)思想已經(jīng)確認(rèn)他們的理論依據(jù)

28、作為建筑管理風(fēng)格，并且在他們的管理系統(tǒng)中表明了其位置。主要學(xué)術(shù)思想觀點(diǎn)計劃作為建筑工程管理學(xué)科的核心競爭力。特別是,PM方法體現(xiàn)了“管理規(guī)劃”的概念。同時管理方法認(rèn)為規(guī)劃作為三個核心主題之一(即，規(guī)劃、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、綜合和系統(tǒng))。</p><p>　　對于不確定性,PM方法適合直接進(jìn)入確定性的世界,它認(rèn)為不確定性,如果僅僅可以輔以緩沖。同時,其他的學(xué)?；ㄙM(fèi)大量的努力探索不確定性,以及提供一些建議如何處理不確定性。特別是W

29、INCH[15]建議，建筑工程管理的目的是為了主導(dǎo)不確定性。同時，KOSKELA et al[39] 認(rèn)為“在理想情況下,可以在所有的信息需求下做出每個決定,沒有任何不確定性[17]在實(shí)踐中有并發(fā)癥。決策可以因為自己造成錯誤的順序從而導(dǎo)致不確定性”。同時管理方法提倡及時決策以適應(yīng)不確定性;隔離任務(wù)受到很高的不確定性,和相互依賴的任務(wù)盡可能的解耦,如果分離是不可能的,吸收利用冗余資源的不確定性,或管理界面選擇性之間相互依賴的任務(wù)。<

30、/p><p>　　可以這樣說,在討論采用建筑工程管理理論,重要的是要了解建設(shè)。首先一個建設(shè)項目是作為復(fù)雜性質(zhì)(如大小的項目,技術(shù)復(fù)雜性;合同安排使用和范圍的客戶顧問承包商關(guān)系)被廣泛接受。建筑行業(yè)也具有不確定性。總之,作者建議:</p><p>　?。?）建設(shè)項目都是獨(dú)一無二的,有著明顯目的一次性努力；</p><p>　?。?）資源用在每個項目都有一個獨(dú)特的配置,

31、因此每個項目都不同于其他項目;</p><p>　?。?）一個項目的環(huán)境總是發(fā)生著不同的、不斷的變化。</p><p>　　從哲學(xué)上考慮,所有實(shí)踐活動使課程表中增加了實(shí)用型,在某種意義上,所有的實(shí)用的行動是基于一些理論或知識,不論從業(yè)者是否意識到理論指導(dǎo)著他們的行動[38] 。因此作者認(rèn)為：</p><p>　?。?）建設(shè)工程在本質(zhì)上是復(fù)雜的和不確定性的,而不確定性

32、隨著項目的進(jìn)展過程降低。</p><p>　　（2）在實(shí)踐中一些不確定性是由于錯誤的順序,因此,不確定性很大一部分存在于今天的施工過程，所有可以優(yōu)化決策管理的秩序,特別是進(jìn)一步跟蹤和管理；</p><p>　?。?）管理不確定性的有效途徑是及時調(diào)整決策;隔離任務(wù)受到很高的不確定性,和相互依賴的任務(wù)盡可能的解耦,如果分離是不可能的,吸收利用冗余資源的不確定性,或管理界面選擇性之間相互依賴的任

33、務(wù)。</p><p><b>　　參考文獻(xiàn)</b></p><p>　　[1] LATHAM M. Constructing the team joint review of procurement and contractual arrangements in the United Kingdom construction industry [M]. London:

34、 The Stationery Office, 1994.</p><p>　　[2] AUSTIN S, BALDWIN A, HAMMOND J, et al. Design chains: a handbook for integrated collaborative design [M]. London: Thomas Telford Press, 2001.</p><p>　　

35、[3] EGAN J. Rethinking construction—the report of the Construction Task Force[M]. London: Rethinking Construction, Construction Industry Council, 1998.</p><p>　　[4] KOSKELA L. Application of the new producti

36、on philosophy to construction[R]. Standford: Stanford University, 1992.</p><p>　　[5] LEAN C I. Lean construction opportunities ideas practices [EB/OL].</p><p>　　[2005?06?01]. http://www.leancons

37、truction.org/pdf/Lean_Construction_Opportunities_Ideas_Practices-Deans_Speech_in_Seattle_r1.pdf.</p><p>　　[6] Construction21SteeringCommittee.Re-inventing construction[R]. Singapore: Ministry of Manpower and

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43、 Regulations [M]. London: Thomas Telford Press, 1998.</p><p>　　[13] KAMING P F, OLOMOLAIYE P O, HOLT G D, et al. Factors influencing construction time and cost overruns on high-rise projects in Indonesia [J]

44、. Construction Management and Economics, 1997,</p><p>　　15(1):83-94. [14] LAUFER A, DENKER R, SHENHAR J. Simultaneous management: the key to excellence in capital projects [J]. International Journal of Proje

45、ct Management, 1996, 14(4): 189?199.</p><p>　　[15] WINCH G M. Managing construction project: an information process approach [M]. Manchester: Blackwell Science Press, 2002.</p><p>　　[16] BALLARD

46、 G. (1999). Improving Work Flow Reliability[C]// International Group for Lean Construction. London: Lean Construction Institution, 1999: 275?286.</p><p>　　[17] KOSKELA L, BALLARD G. Should project management

47、 be based on theories of economics or production [J]. Building Research & Information, 2008, 34(2): 154?163.</p><p>　　[18] KOSKELA L, HOWELL G. The theory of project management: explanation to novel meth

48、ods[C]//Proceedings of the 10th Annual International Group for Lean Construction. Gramado: Lean Construction Institution, 2002: 183?195.</p><p>　　[19] JOHNSTON R B, BRENNAN M. Planning or organising: the Sig

49、nificance of theories of activity for the management of operations [J]. International Journal of Management Science, 1996,24(4): 367?384.</p><p>　　[20] KOSKELA L, HOWELL G. The underlying theory of project m

50、anagement is obsolete[C]//Proceedings of PMI Research Conference. New York: Project Management Institute, 2002: 134?147.</p><p>　　[21] KOSKELA L, HOWELL G. Reforming project management: the roleof planning,

51、execution and controlling[C]//Proceedings of the 9th International Group for Lean Construction. Kent Ridge Crescent: National University of Singapore, 2001: 185?198.</p><p>　　[22] KOSKELA L, BALLARD G, TANHU

52、ANPAA V. Towards lean design management[C]//Proceedings of the 5th International Group for Lean Construction. Gold Coast: 1997: 289?296.</p><p>　　[23] LAUFER A. Simultaneous management: managing projects in

53、a dynamic environment [M]. New York: American Management Association Press, 1997.</p><p>　　[24] CHOO H J. Distributed planning and coordination to support lean construction [D]. California: Engineering-Civil

54、 and Environmental Engineering, the University of California, 2003.</p><p>　　[25] TOMMELEIN I D. Models of lean construction processes: example of pipe-spool materials management[C]// Proceedings of ASCE ons

55、truction Congress 97. Minneapolis: ASCE Institution, 1997:97?84.</p><p>　　出處：中南工業(yè)大學(xué)學(xué)報 (2009) 16(s1): 100?104</p><p>　　DOI: 10.1007/s11771?009?0190?4</p><p>　　Comparison of project m

56、anagement approaches in construction</p><p>　　LI Bai-yi(李百毅)1, ZHENG Min(鄭 敏)2, LI Bai-zhan(李百戰(zhàn))2, AUSTIN S3, THORPE T3</p><p>　　(1. Faculty of Architecture, Southwest Jiaotong University, Cheng

57、du 610031 China;</p><p>　　2. Faculty of Urban Construction and Environment, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China</p><p>　　3. Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough U

58、niversity, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK)</p><p>　　Abstract: The construction industry is acutely aware of the need to improve its management process. Currently, construction management is facing four major sc

59、hools of thoughts. This paper reports the recent study results, the aim of which was to compare these approaches. The focus will be on the questions: What is the theory root for this school of thoughts? What is the posit

60、ion of planning? What are the techniques used or recommended by each of these schools of thoughts in managing construction</p><p>　　Key words: construction; project management; approaches</p><p>

61、;　　1． Introduction</p><p>　　There is a dominant theme in the literature that the construction industry as a whole is under-achieving, has a low and unreliable rate of profitability and many projects are unpr

62、edictable in terms of delivery, budget and standards of quality[1?2]. </p><p>　　Since 1990s, many movements, initiatives and programmes around the world have sought to change and improve the performance of t

63、he construction industry. These include the ‘Rethinking Construction’ campaign in UK[3], “Lean Construction” movement in USA and UK[4?5], the “Construction 21” programme in Singapore[6], and the ‘Construct for Excellence

64、’ initiative in Hong Kong[7]. Following these movements, the construction industry has begun to adopt innovative working practices, some of which were wi</p><p>　　It is a widely held belief that effective pr

65、oject management is essential to the success of completion of a construction project[9?10]. Previous research has demonstrated that effective construction planning can significantly increase the chances of completion of

66、a project on time [11], safely [12] and within budget [13]. We can find considerable skills used by ancient man to manage their projects, which happened thousands years ago, when ancient Egyptians built their Pyramids, w

67、hen Romans built</p><p>　　2． Project management body of knowledge</p><p>　　This style of management has a “l(fā)ong” history, and its evolution has been closely related to: (1) in modern management

68、theory (e.g. organisation design and team building); and (2) the evolution of computer-based planning techniques (i.e. CPM, PERT). Because of its “l(fā)ong” history, some researches often refer this style of management as “t

69、raditional project management approach”[16]. Today, this approach is largely represented in the Project Management Institute’s (PMI) Project Management Body of K</p><p>　　As the theory root of this style of

70、management, KOSKELA et al[18] divided the theories of PM style into the theories of management and the theories of project. In regard to the theories of management, they pointed out that PM style is based on three theori

71、es: (1) management-as-planning where detailed planning is undertaken before structured implementation and control back against the original plan of any deviations during implementation[19]; (2) the dispatching model that

72、 assumes that planned ta</p><p>　　Fig.1 Transformation concept[20]</p><p>　　As to the position of planning in this management approach, it states that planning is one of five project management

73、processes and these five processes together form a closed loop. This approach adopts the concept of‘the plan-do-check-act cycle’. According to the PM style of construction management, the planning process corresponding t

74、o the component of “plan” develops a plan that is executed by execution process that corresponds to the component of “do”, and the monitoring and controlling proc</p><p>　　KOSKELA et al[22] critiqued this “m

75、anagement-asplanning” style of project planning and control, and pointed out that the PM approach views a strong causal connection between the actions of management and outcomes of the organization. By assuming that tran

76、slating a plan into action is a simple process, it takes plan production to be essentially synonymous with action. They stated that “however, translating from plans to action is only possible if resources are actually av

77、ailable and interdependen</p><p>　　For achieving the management of projects, the PM approach specifically identifies the Critical Path Method (CPM) and the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) as project managemen

78、t-specific knowledge, and stated that “many of the knowledge needed to manage projects is unique or nearly unique to project management (critical path analysis and work breakdown structure)”[24, 4].</p><p>　

79、　3． Lean construction</p><p>　　This approach has been first described by KOSKELA[4] and followed by several publications[25?28]. The starting point of the development of lean construction is the observation

80、of great improvement achieved in manufacturing and service industry during last two decades. It was widely held that those improvements would owe to a new production philosophy, which leads to “l(fā)ean production”[29]. KOSK

81、ELA and HUOVILA viewed construction as “one-of-a-kind nature of projects, site production, and temporary</p><p>　　Table 1 A theoretical foundation of project management[31]</p><p>　　Subject of t

82、heory Relevant theories</p><p>　　Project Transformation, flow </p><p>　　value generation</p><p>　　Planning Management-as-planning</p>

83、;<p>　　Management-as-organizing</p><p>　　Management Execution Classical communication theory</p><p>　　Language/action perspective</p><p>　　Control

84、 Thermostat model</p><p>　　Scientific experimentation model</p><p>　　The lean construction has been adopted by UK construction in 1997, and has been strongly endorsed by the influential ‘Egan Re

85、port’[3]. For achieving the management of projects, some techniques and tools such as last planner, dependency structure matrix, work structure), DePlan,</p><p>　　supply chain management are employed to allo

86、w the principles to be applied to the management of construction project as part to the lean production delivery system[32]. </p><p>　　Lean construction recognizes the dependences and variations along supply

87、 chains of construction projects and identifies the product uncertainties and process uncertainties in the construction process and therefore it advocated that lean construction can actively manage those product and proc

88、ess uncertainties[33]. However, Green critiqued that construction researchers who advocated the application of lean production philosophy to construction have notably ignored a considerable body of critical o</p>

89、<p>　　As to the position of planning in this approach, WINCH point out that lean construction theorists have introduced an important distinction between management-as-planning and management-as-organizing[36]. Lean

90、construction advocated the combination of the approach of management-as-planning and the approach of management-as-organizing in construction planning [18]. However, through research interviews with 18 UK practical plann

91、ers, WINCH and KELSEY find that “they are more in the mode of developin</p><p>　　4． Towards a theory of construction as production by projects</p><p>　　This school of thoughts is presented in th

92、e book, “Managing Construction Project: An Information Process Approach”, by WINCH[15], and reinforced by several publications[35?37]. This approach views the management of construction project as “a holistic discipline”

93、, rather than “a set of fragmented professional domains”. Winch pointed out “the management of construction projects is a problem in information”, and “the fundamental problem in the management of information is uncertai

94、nty; in other word</p><p>　　As to the theory root of this approach, it stated that “management is essentially an organizational innovation —the identification of a person or small team responsible for ensuri

95、ng the effective delivery of the project mission for the client”[35], KOSKELA and BALLARD pointed out that this approach has two main characteristics: (1) views project as organisation; (2) views project as a transaction

96、 between the client and the project participants, and it contains four theoretical starting points: t</p><p>　　As the position of planning in this approach, this approach viewed planning as a middle-manageme

97、nt, operational discipline, rather than the strategic discipline. Winch pointed out that in UK construction practice, “planning as the creation of a framework for subsequent action and developing plans-as-resources to gu

98、ide managers as events unfold are compatible with the management as-organizing approach”[36]. This approach has introduced an important distinction between the different requirements o</p><p>　　It was clearl

99、y shown that in the school of thought, the major concerns in improving programming performance in managing construction projects is “the uncertainties associated with task execution duration, which make programming diffi

100、cult and encourage the padding of durations”[15]. For achieving this, this approach advocated that the problems of uncertainty are better addressed by both the last planner and the critical chain, This approach believes

101、that the last planner and the critical chain wo</p><p>　　5． Simultaneous management</p><p>　　This approach is first presented in the paper, “Simultaneous management: the key to excellence in cap