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1、<p><b> 中文3730字</b></p><p> 本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)</p><p><b> 外文翻譯</b></p><p> 外文出處 Journal of Management;1997,No.3,Vol.23:P239-290/ </p><p>
2、Team Performance Management;1998,No.8,Vol.4:P3199-330 </p><p> 外文作者 Cohen,Susan G;Bailey,Diane E/Samuel M. Natale and </p><p> Anthony F. Libertella
3、 </p><p><b> 原文:</b></p><p> What makes teams work: group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite </p>
4、<p> The management and academic press increasingly emphasizes the importance of teams for organizational success in the modem economy. Books and articles have been written about how to design empowered or self-dir
5、ected work teams (Wellins, Byham & Wilson, 1991; Orsburn, Moran, Musselwhite, & Zenger, 1990), parallel learning teams (Bushe & Shani, 1991), cross-functional project teams (Parker, 1994), executive teams (Na
6、dler & Ancona, 1992), and team-based organizations (Mohrman, Cohen, & Mohrman, 1995</p><p><b> Team</b></p><p> What is a team in an organizational setting? There are multi
7、ple definitions but the one we use comes from the work of Hackman (1987) building on the work of Alderfer (1977). Guzzo and Dickson (1996) draw from the same intellectual tradition in their recent review; Sundstrom, DeMe
8、use and Futrell (1990) used a similar definition. A team is a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, who share responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and who are seen by others as an in
9、</p><p> We use the words "team" and "group" interchangeably in this paper, although we more frequently use the term "team." The popular management literature has tended to use
10、 the term "team," for example, empowered teams, quality improvement teams, and team effectiveness. The academic literature has tended to use the word "group," for example, group cohesion, group dynami
11、cs, and group effectiveness. Groups vary in their degree of "groupness," with some groups being more interdependent and integrated th</p><p> Types of Teams</p><p> Four types of tea
12、ms can be identified in organizations today: (1) work teams, (2) parallel teams, (3) project teams, and (4) management teams. Each of these types fits our general definition of a team. Other sources offer slightly differ
13、ent typologies (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993; Mohrman et al., 1995; Sundstrom et al., 1990), but their categories overlap with ours. For example, Sundstrom et al. (1990) differentiate between advice and involvement teams
14、, production and service teams, project and dev</p><p> Parallel Teams pull together people from different work units or jobs to perform functions that the regular organization is not equipped to perform we
15、ll (Ledford, Lawler & Mohrman, 1988; Stein & Kanter, 1980). They literally exist in parallel with the formal organizational structure. They generally have limited authority and can only make recommendations to in
16、dividuals higher up in the organizational hierarchy. Parallel teams are used for problem-solving and improvement-oriented activities. Exam</p><p> Project Teams are time-limited. They produce one-time outpu
17、ts, such as a new product or service to be marketed by the company, a new information system, or a new plant (Mankin, Cohen & Bikson, 1996). For the most part, project team tasks are non-repetitive in nature and invo
18、lve considerable application of knowledge, judgment, and expertise. The work that a project team performs may represent either an incremental improvement over an existing concept or a radically different new idea. Freque
19、ntly,</p><p> Management Teams coordinate and provide direction to the sub-units under their jurisdiction, laterally integrating interdependent sub-units across key business processes (Mohrman et al., 1995)
20、. The management team is responsible for the overall performance. of a business unit. Its authority stems from the hierarchical rank of its members. It is composed of the managers responsible for each subunit, such as vi
21、ce-presidents of research and development, manufacturing, marketing, and quality. At the</p><p> Effectiveness of Teams</p><p> We take a broad approach to effectiveness to include the multipl
22、icity of outcomes that matter in organizational settings. These outcomes occur at several levels: at the individual, group, business unit, and organizational levels. Outcomes can be related to one another in complex and
23、sometimes conflicting ways (Argote & McGrath, 1993). Effectiveness at one level of analysis can interfere with effectiveness at another level. Thus, it is important to be clear about the dimensions of effectiveness t
24、</p><p> We categorize effectiveness into three major dimensions according to the team's impact on: (1) performance effectiveness assessed in terms of quantity and quality of outputs, (2) member attitud
25、es, and (3) behavioral outcomes. Examples of performance effectiveness measures include efficiency, productivity, response times, quality, customer satisfaction, and innovation. Examples of attitudinal measures include e
26、mployee satisfaction, commitment, and trust in management. Examples of behavioral measu</p><p> Team Effectiveness Framework</p><p> Figure 1 presents a heuristic framework for analyzing the e
27、ffectiveness of teams. In this framework, effectiveness is a function of environmental factors, design factors, group processes, and group psychosocial traits. Environmental factors are characteristics of the external en
28、vironment in which the organization is embedded, such as industry characteristics or turbulence. Design factors refer to those features of the task, group, and organization that can be directly manipulated by managers to
29、 </p><p> This framework moves away from the "input-process-output" approach (McGrath, 1984) by depicting design factors, which have an indirect impact on outcomes via group processes and psychoso
30、cial traits, as also having a direct impact on outcomes. It suggests that group psychosocial traits are real group-level phenomena. These traits directly influence outcomes; they also indirectly influence them through sh
31、aping internal and external processes. The framework illustrates that group processes can beco</p><p> We use this heuristic framework to help us make sense out of a complex set of relationships and to sugg
32、est directions for future work. This framework draws attention to the design factors which are the major points of leverage for influencing team effectiveness. It suggests that critical group processes occur both inside
33、and outside the group. Recent studies of new product development project teams (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992a) focused on the impact of external processes. In contrast, most previous</p><p> In the sections
34、that follow, we organize our discussion of research findings by looking at each type of team in turn: work and parallel teams, project teams, and management teams. Within each team discussion, we group results according
35、to the seven categories from our heuristic group effectiveness framework: task design, group composition design, organizational context design, environmental factors, internal group processes, external group processes, a
36、nd group psychosocial traits. Under each cat</p><p> Source: Cohen, Susan G.; Bailey, Diane E,1997 “What makes teams work: group </p><p> effectiveness research from the shop floor to the exec
37、utive suite”.Journal of</p><p> Management,Vol,23,No.3,P239-290</p><p><b> 譯文:</b></p><p> 團(tuán)隊(duì)工作的秘訣:車間到行政部門(mén)的團(tuán)體效能研究</p><p> 管理和學(xué)術(shù)出版日益強(qiáng)調(diào)團(tuán)隊(duì)在現(xiàn)代經(jīng)濟(jì)中對(duì)組織成功的重要性。書(shū)
38、籍和文章已經(jīng)寫(xiě)了如何設(shè)計(jì)授權(quán)或以自我為導(dǎo)向的工作團(tuán)隊(duì)(Wellins, Byham & Wilson, 1991; Orsburn, Moran, Musselwhite, & Zenger, 1990),并行學(xué)習(xí)團(tuán)隊(duì)(Bushe & Shani, 1991),跨職能項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)(Parker, 1994),(Nadler & Ancona, 1992)執(zhí)行團(tuán)隊(duì),和團(tuán)隊(duì)為基礎(chǔ)的組織(Mohrman, Cohe
39、n, & Mohrman, 1995)。團(tuán)隊(duì)的用處在應(yīng)對(duì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的挑戰(zhàn)中已經(jīng)急劇擴(kuò)大。例如,82%的公司中100人或更多的員工報(bào)告說(shuō),他們運(yùn)用團(tuán)隊(duì)(Gordon, 1992)。有68%的財(cái)富1000強(qiáng)企業(yè)報(bào)告說(shuō),他們運(yùn)用自我管理工作團(tuán)隊(duì),91%的表示他們?cè)?993年和1987年的員工參與群體相比分別是28%和70%(Lawler, Mohrman, & Ledford, 1995)。在關(guān)于56000位美國(guó)生產(chǎn)工人的數(shù)據(jù)中,C
40、apelli的和Rogovsky(1994)發(fā)現(xiàn),新的工作活動(dòng)中所需的最常見(jiàn)的技能之一是能夠作為一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)工作</p><p><b> 團(tuán)隊(duì)</b></p><p> 在組織設(shè)置中什么是團(tuán)隊(duì)?有多種定義,除了來(lái)自Hackman(1987)對(duì)Alderfer(1977年)的工作建設(shè)上。Guzzo和Dickson(1996年)從他們最近的觀點(diǎn)中借鑒了同樣的思想傳統(tǒng);S
41、undstrom,DeMeuse和Futrell(1990)使用了類似的定義。一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)是個(gè)人的集合,在他們的任務(wù)中相互依存,共享責(zé)任結(jié)果,并反觀他們自己,被他人看作是一個(gè)完整的社會(huì)實(shí)體在一個(gè)或更大的社會(huì)系統(tǒng)中(例如,業(yè)務(wù)部門(mén)或公司),管理他們的關(guān)系跨越組織邊界。例如,在生產(chǎn)工作組中,一位成員可以傳遞她的工作產(chǎn)品給另一位成員,所有成員為了質(zhì)量和最終生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)出數(shù)量負(fù)責(zé)。在一個(gè)項(xiàng)目小組中,研究和開(kāi)發(fā)工作的工程師可以反復(fù)工作與生產(chǎn)工藝工程師確保正
42、在開(kāi)發(fā)的設(shè)計(jì)可以生產(chǎn);團(tuán)隊(duì)的初步設(shè)計(jì)可以由研究開(kāi)發(fā)和生產(chǎn)制造職能部門(mén)經(jīng)理審閱。按照這個(gè)定義,一個(gè)電氣部門(mén)的工程師是在分開(kāi)的項(xiàng)目上工作而不是一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)中。工程師彼此獨(dú)立工作,不為了一個(gè)結(jié)果負(fù)責(zé)任,且并不相互依存。</p><p> 在本文中我們用“團(tuán)隊(duì)”和“群體”互換,雖然我們更頻繁地使用“團(tuán)隊(duì)”。流行的管理文獻(xiàn)中往往使用術(shù)語(yǔ)“團(tuán)隊(duì)”,例如,授權(quán)的團(tuán)隊(duì),質(zhì)量改進(jìn)團(tuán)隊(duì)和團(tuán)隊(duì)效能。學(xué)術(shù)文獻(xiàn)傾向于使用“群體”,例如,群體
43、凝聚力,群體動(dòng)力學(xué),與團(tuán)體效能。群體在他們的群體程度上有所不同,一些群體更加相互依存比其他的更具綜合性。一些作者將“團(tuán)隊(duì)”的標(biāo)簽用于群體上,發(fā)展成一個(gè)高程度的群體。(見(jiàn)例,Katzenbach and Smith,1993)。該公約尚未被廣泛認(rèn)同,因此,我們并不區(qū)分對(duì)這些術(shù)語(yǔ)的使用。</p><p><b> 團(tuán)隊(duì)類型</b></p><p> 在當(dāng)今組織中可以確
44、定四種團(tuán)隊(duì)類型:(1)工作團(tuán)隊(duì),(2)平行團(tuán)隊(duì),(3)項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì),(4)管理團(tuán)隊(duì)。每種類型適合我們對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的一般定義。其他來(lái)源提供略有不同的類型學(xué)(Katzenbach & Smith, 1993;Mohrman等,1995;Sundstrom等,1990),但它們的類別與我們重復(fù)。例如,Sundstrom等(1990年)區(qū)分參與團(tuán)隊(duì),生產(chǎn)和服務(wù)團(tuán)隊(duì),項(xiàng)目和開(kāi)發(fā)團(tuán)隊(duì),并采取行動(dòng)和談判小組等建議。在我們的類型學(xué)的類別中,工作團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)應(yīng)于
45、他們的生產(chǎn)和服務(wù)隊(duì)伍,并行團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)應(yīng)他們的意見(jiàn)和參與團(tuán)隊(duì),項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)應(yīng)他們的項(xiàng)目和發(fā)展團(tuán)隊(duì)。我們包括一個(gè)管理團(tuán)隊(duì),他們包括一個(gè)行動(dòng)和協(xié)商團(tuán)隊(duì)。</p><p> 平行團(tuán)隊(duì)齊心協(xié)力通常從由不同的工作單位或工作的人來(lái)執(zhí)行,規(guī)律的組織不一定就能履行好職能(Ledford, Lawler & Mohrman, 1988;Stein & Kanter, 1980)。他們大多存在于正式的組織結(jié)構(gòu)與平行團(tuán)隊(duì)中。
46、他們一般權(quán)力有限,只能提出建議,以提高個(gè)人在組織層次結(jié)構(gòu)的地位。用于平行團(tuán)隊(duì)解決問(wèn)題和改善為導(dǎo)向的活動(dòng)。例子包括質(zhì)量改進(jìn)團(tuán)隊(duì),員工的參與群體,質(zhì)量圈,和工作團(tuán)隊(duì)。一項(xiàng)研究關(guān)于審查在美國(guó)聯(lián)邦鑄幣廠(Steel, Jennings, & Lindsey, 1990)的質(zhì)量圈。平行團(tuán)隊(duì)已運(yùn)用了相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間,但在質(zhì)量和員工參與持續(xù)的興趣上,本組的類型結(jié)果廣泛擴(kuò)散。</p><p> 項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)是受時(shí)間限制的。他
47、們的生產(chǎn)一次性輸出,如新的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù),由公司,一個(gè)新的信息系統(tǒng),或者一個(gè)新的工廠(Mankin, Cohen & Bikson, 1996)生產(chǎn)及銷售。在大多數(shù)情況下,項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)的任務(wù)具有不可重復(fù)的性質(zhì),涉及知識(shí)的判斷和專門(mén)知識(shí)的應(yīng)用。一個(gè)項(xiàng)目的工作團(tuán)隊(duì)執(zhí)行可能代表要么是在現(xiàn)有的概念之中,要么是在一個(gè)完全不同的新思路中逐步改進(jìn)。通常情況下,項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)汲取不同學(xué)科和職能單位及其成員,使專業(yè)知識(shí)可以應(yīng)用到手頭的項(xiàng)目。例如,新產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)團(tuán)隊(duì)
48、經(jīng)常進(jìn)行市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷,工程設(shè)計(jì)和他們成員的制造。當(dāng)一個(gè)項(xiàng)目完成后,成員也回到自己的功能單元或移動(dòng)到下一個(gè)項(xiàng)目中。在產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)文獻(xiàn),Brown 和 Eisenhardt(1995)指出,跨職能團(tuán)隊(duì)被發(fā)現(xiàn)可以提高項(xiàng)目的成功。項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間一直是種組織風(fēng)格,是航空航天和國(guó)防公司自二戰(zhàn)以來(lái)使用他們的一部分。它們具備同時(shí)做多項(xiàng)活動(dòng)的能力,從而相對(duì)節(jié)省時(shí)間,因此,公司正在擴(kuò)大他們的項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)一個(gè)基于時(shí)間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)(Stalk & Hout, 1
49、990)的反應(yīng)。 Eisenhardt和Tabrizi(1995)發(fā)現(xiàn),多功能的新產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)團(tuán)隊(duì)中使用36個(gè)電腦</p><p> 管理團(tuán)隊(duì)提供指導(dǎo)和協(xié)調(diào)小組在其管轄下的單位,相互依存的橫向整合關(guān)鍵在于業(yè)務(wù)流程單位(Mohrman等,1995)。管理團(tuán)隊(duì)的整體表現(xiàn)。一個(gè)業(yè)務(wù)單位。它的權(quán)威源于其成員等級(jí)排名。它是由管理人員對(duì)每個(gè)這樣的研究和開(kāi)發(fā),制造,營(yíng)銷和質(zhì)量,副總統(tǒng)負(fù)責(zé)。在該組織的最高層,執(zhí)行管理團(tuán)隊(duì)確立了企業(yè)
50、的戰(zhàn)略方向和管理其性能。對(duì)企業(yè)高層管理團(tuán)隊(duì)(高層管理團(tuán)隊(duì))的使用擴(kuò)大動(dòng)蕩對(duì)應(yīng)全球商業(yè)環(huán)境的復(fù)雜性。管理團(tuán)隊(duì)可以幫助企業(yè)實(shí)現(xiàn)運(yùn)用集體智慧,努力整合不同的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì),為公司的成功分擔(dān)責(zé)任(Mankin等,1996)。</p><p><b> 團(tuán)隊(duì)的有效性</b></p><p> 我們采取廣泛的方法效益結(jié)果,包括在該組織多重設(shè)置問(wèn)題。這些成果出現(xiàn)在幾個(gè)層次:在個(gè)人,團(tuán)
51、體,企事業(yè)單位和組織水平上。結(jié)果可能與一個(gè)復(fù)雜的,有時(shí)與另一個(gè)相互矛盾的方式(Argote & McGrath,1993)。一個(gè)分析水平和效益可能會(huì)干擾在另一個(gè)層面上的效力。因此,重要的是應(yīng)該針對(duì)該尺寸的成效,并考慮他們目前正在考慮的層次是否清晰。</p><p> 我們劃分為三個(gè)主要方面的成效,根據(jù)團(tuán)隊(duì)的影響:(1)性能的效益產(chǎn)出的數(shù)量和質(zhì)量方面的評(píng)估,(2)成員的態(tài)度,以及(3)行為的結(jié)果。對(duì)工作成
52、效措施的例子包括效率,生產(chǎn)率,響應(yīng)時(shí)間,質(zhì)量,客戶滿意度和創(chuàng)新。態(tài)度措施的例子包括:?jiǎn)T工的滿意度,承諾,管理層的信任。行為措施的例子包括曠工,營(yíng)業(yè)額和安全性。Guzzo & Dickson(1996年),Sundstrom等(1990年)和Hackman(1987年)包括在多個(gè)方面有效性的定義,但沒(méi)有引起重視行為結(jié)果。我們的研究報(bào)告中使用這一審查這三個(gè)維度的結(jié)果。</p><p><b> 團(tuán)
53、隊(duì)有效的框架</b></p><p> 框架圖1給出了一種啟發(fā)式的團(tuán)隊(duì)效力的框架分析。在此框架內(nèi),效果是環(huán)境因素,設(shè)計(jì)因素,團(tuán)體處理,心理特點(diǎn)和組的功能。環(huán)境因素是外部環(huán)境,使組織嵌入等行業(yè)特征或動(dòng)蕩的特點(diǎn)。設(shè)計(jì)因素是指那些任務(wù),組織功能和組織管理人員可以直接操縱性能,創(chuàng)造有效的條件。任務(wù)設(shè)計(jì)變量的例子包括自治和相互依賴性。小組的組成設(shè)計(jì)變量的例子包括大小,任期,人口統(tǒng)計(jì)和多樣性。組織方面的設(shè)計(jì)變量
54、的例子有獎(jiǎng)勵(lì),監(jiān)督,培訓(xùn)和資源。過(guò)程是這樣的溝通與互動(dòng),沖突和群體成員之間發(fā)生的外部人員。集團(tuán)心理特征是共同理解,信仰或情感基調(diào)。例子包括規(guī)范,凝聚力,團(tuán)隊(duì)心智模式,以及集團(tuán)的影響。效能表現(xiàn)的結(jié)果是,態(tài)度,而且我們已經(jīng)討論過(guò)這個(gè)行為指標(biāo)。</p><p> 這個(gè)框架移動(dòng)脫離處“輸入—過(guò)程—輸出”的方式,在潛移默化的設(shè)計(jì)因素其中有一組進(jìn)程上通過(guò)的成果和心理特征的間接影響(McGrath,1984年),也具有一對(duì)結(jié)
55、果產(chǎn)生直接影響。這表明該組的心理特征是真實(shí)小組的現(xiàn)象。這些特點(diǎn)直接影響結(jié)果,他們也間接地影響到他們處理塑造的內(nèi)部和外部。該框架說(shuō)明了該組的過(guò)程可以成為社會(huì)心理特征,如規(guī)范,共享心智模式,或情感狀態(tài)之中。環(huán)境因素,同時(shí),有設(shè)計(jì)因素的直接影響??傊?,環(huán)境因素,設(shè)計(jì)因素,內(nèi)部和外部流程,心理特點(diǎn)和組預(yù)測(cè)結(jié)果的有效性。我們應(yīng)該注意到,有效性的結(jié)果可以相互影響小組進(jìn)程,即出現(xiàn)心理特征,甚至設(shè)計(jì)因素。例如,對(duì)高層管理團(tuán)隊(duì)的組成更可能改變的情況下的公
56、司是差強(qiáng)人意的(Hambrick & D'Aveni,1992)。正如我們稍后討論的,大多數(shù)研究仍然沒(méi)有解決如何隨時(shí)間而改變團(tuán)隊(duì),隨后未能捕捉到這些變化對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)有效性的影響。為了簡(jiǎn)單,因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)的研究,我們認(rèn)為這里沒(méi)有觀察和預(yù)測(cè)結(jié)果之間隨著時(shí)間的推移發(fā)生相互關(guān)系,我們不以圖形方式在圖1中表示這些關(guān)系。</p><p> 我們利用這個(gè)框架來(lái)幫助我們啟發(fā)出了一套復(fù)雜的關(guān)系的意義,并提出今后工作的方向。
57、請(qǐng)注意這個(gè)框架的設(shè)計(jì)因素,是影響團(tuán)隊(duì)效能的杠桿要點(diǎn)。它表明,關(guān)鍵工序組內(nèi)外發(fā)生的集團(tuán)。新產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)(Ancona & Caldwell,1992)最近的研究主要集中在外部進(jìn)程的影響。與此相反,過(guò)去大部分框架專注于集團(tuán)內(nèi)部流程。該模型把注意力集中到作為社會(huì)實(shí)體,具有共同的心理特征影響其行為的集團(tuán)。這些措施包括構(gòu)造,歷史上已被研究的,如群體規(guī)范和凝聚力,以及新的構(gòu)造,如團(tuán)隊(duì)心智模式或集團(tuán)的影響。然而,大多數(shù)的框架被看作是小組進(jìn)
58、程的凝聚力或規(guī)范,并沒(méi)有考慮更廣泛地共享小組信念,理解,或成效的情感基調(diào)的影響。最近的概念和經(jīng)驗(yàn)的工作已經(jīng)開(kāi)始,研究團(tuán)隊(duì)心智模式的影響(Klimoski&Mohanned,1994;Weick & Roberts,1993)和集團(tuán)影響(George,1990)的成效。</p><p> 在下面的章節(jié)中,我們組織通過(guò)觀察各團(tuán)隊(duì)依次輸入我們的研究結(jié)果進(jìn)行討論:工作和平行團(tuán)隊(duì),項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)和管理團(tuán)隊(duì)。在每
59、個(gè)小組的討論中,我們的集團(tuán)業(yè)績(jī)根據(jù)我們的啟發(fā)式集團(tuán)效力的框架的七類:任務(wù)的設(shè)計(jì),組成設(shè)計(jì)小組,組織環(huán)境設(shè)計(jì),環(huán)境因素,集團(tuán)內(nèi)部流程,外部組織流程和集團(tuán)心理特征。在每個(gè)類別的標(biāo)題,我們用小標(biāo)題來(lái)表示特定變量進(jìn)行審查。因此,舉例來(lái)說(shuō),根據(jù)工作小組的組成和平行團(tuán)隊(duì)類別,我們使用兩個(gè)小標(biāo)題:第一為我們的研究調(diào)查的多樣性討論,及第二次討論。</p><p> 出處:科恩,蘇珊 G,《團(tuán)隊(duì)工作的秘訣:車間到行政部門(mén)的團(tuán)體效
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