world civilizations, third edition, by stearns, adas

1、World Civilizations, Third Edition, by Stearns, Adas, Schwartz, and GilbertOverviewThe primary goal of World Civilizations is to present a truly global history—one that both discusses the development of the world's

2、leading civilizations and also emphasizes the major stages in the interactions among different peoples and societies. World Civilizations examines all the world's civilizations, including those in the Western tradi

3、tion but also those civilizations sometimes neglected in world history texts—for example, the nomadic societies of Asia, Latin America, and the nations and states of the Pacific Rim. World Civilizations balances this d

4、iscussion of independent developments in all the world's major civilizations with comparative analysis of the results of international contact. World Civilizations organizes its presentation of global history into s

5、ix coherent time periods, with each period defined by the new and parallel patterns that evolved among all or most civilizations during the particular era. The six periods correspond to the six parts of the book. Withi

6、n each part, the authors identify specific themes that characterize common experiences or common forces in individual societies as well as the new kinds and patterns of global contacts that emerged during the era. Thu

7、s, for example, Part I of the book discusses the developmental stage of world history, including the rise of agriculture and the development of civilization. Part II examines the classical era in global history, an era

8、 marked by the integration of large regions and diverse groups of people through overarching cultural and political systems. Subsequent parts of the book continue the emphasis on geographic shifts and the intensificati

9、on of contact among civilizations.Chapter 1 OutlineThe Neolithic Revolution and the Birth of CivilizationI. Introduction The history of civilizations comprises only a tiny fraction of the time that the genus Homo has in

10、habited the earth. Civilized societies those that relied on sedentary agriculture, developed social stratification and economic specialization, and created population densities sufficient to support urban life have exi

11、sted for the last 9,000 years. In order to understand civilizations, it is necessary to look at prehistorical precedents for human development in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The rise of sedentary agricultural c

12、ommunities during the Neolithic is one of the first great transformations of human society.II. Human Life in the Era of Hunters and Gatherers A. Introduction Homo sapiens, one of a number of human-like species, was able

13、 to achieve biological dominance over its rivals and to spread over much of the earth by 10,000 B.C.E. The success of Homo sapiens was in part due to manual dexterity that permitted the production of tools enhancing t

14、he physical capabilities of early humans and to intelligence that allowed the development of spoken language enabling groups of humans to engage in cooperative behavior.B. Paleolithic Culture precarious. With limited t

15、echnology and vulnerable to alterations in the migratory patterns of prey or climatic alterations that created changes in the ecosystems on which they depended, all human communities experienced the constant threat of

16、extinction.III. Agriculture and the Origins of Civilization: The Neolithic Revolution A. Introduction Beginning around 8000 B.C.E., many human cultures became increasingly dependent on cultivated crops and domesticated

17、animals to secure their supply of food. By 7000 B.C.E. sedentary agriculture was able to support towns such as Jericho and Catal Huyuk with populations of more than 1,000. By 3500 B.C.E. the first civilizations appear

18、ed in the Middle East. While no one knows for certain what conditions caused the shift from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture, changes in the climate may have been significant factors. It is also probable

19、that increases in human population prompted changes in food production.B. The Domestication of Plants and Animals The first plants domesticated were the wild grains, barley and wheat, that were common in many regions o

20、f the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture took place slowly. Only as additional crops were added to the agricultural system did societies diminish efforts to hunt and gather. Early agr

21、iculturalists may have continued a semi-nomadic lifestyle.At approximately the same time as the domestication of wild grains, agricultural societies also began to domesticate animals. Dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs were

22、among the first animals domesticated around 8500 B.C.E. Cattle, more aggressive and faster than the other animals, were added to the agricultural system around 6500 B.C.E. Domesticated animals improved the supplies of

23、 available protein, provided hides and wool for clothing materials, and increased the manuring of agricultural land.C. The Spread of Neolithic Revolution The greater effort expended in agricultural systems made the shif

24、t to sedentary communities impractical for many groups. Hunting and gathering societies and agricultural communities continued to coexist. Some groups practiced pastoralism based on dependence on domesticated animals.

25、 Pastoral societies often thrive in semiarid regions incapable of supporting large populations of farmers. Pastoral societies were often strongly militarized.During the period of the Neolithic revolution (8000-5000 B.C

26、.E.), agricultural techniques of production spread from the Middle East to other areas of the globe where the climate permitted. The cultivation of wheat and barley expanded from the Middle East to India and Europe. F

27、rom Egypt the cultivation of grain crops spread southward along the Nile. Africa south of the Sahara desert developed an independent agricultural system around 2000 B.C.E. based on root and tree crops.In China, Neolith

28、ic agricultural societies developed a separate system of crops based on millet. Somewhat later, farmers of Southeast Asia began to cultivate rice. American agricultural systems featured maize, manioc, and sweet potatoe