[推薦]語(yǔ)言學(xué)重點(diǎn)難點(diǎn)簡(jiǎn)略

1、1.Whatislanguage“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedfhumancommunication.Itisasystemsincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematicallyratherthanromly.Arbitraryinthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetween

2、awk(like“book”)theobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish“l(fā)ivre”inFrench“shu”inChinese.Itissymbolicbecausewdsareassociatedwithobjectsactionsideasetc.byn

3、othingbutconvention.Namelypeopleusethesoundsvocalfmstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocalbecausesoundspeechistheprimarymediumfallhumanlanguages.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenfms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlea

4、rncanonlylearntospeak(listen)befetheywrite(read)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocalratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage“Design

5、features”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrarinessdualityproductivitydisplacementculturaltransmissioninterchangeability3.W

6、hatisarbitrarinessBy“arbitrariness”wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningssounds.Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersongroupofpersonshaduseditfapig.Languageistherefelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtob

7、esomesoundmeaningassociationifwethinkofechowdslike“bang”“crash”“roar”whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondlysomecompounds(wdscompoundedtobeonewd)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”“write”areopaqueunmotivatedwdswhile“t

8、ypewriter”islesssometransparentmotivatedthanthewdsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.4.WhatisdualityLinguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigatedonefindstwolevelsofst

9、ructurepatterning.Atthefirsthigherlevellanguageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmphemeswdsetc.)atthesecondlowerlevelitisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselvesbutwhichcombinetofmuni

10、tsofmeaning.AccdingtoHuZhanglinetal.languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructuresoneofsoundstheotherofmeaning.Thisisimptantfthewkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(wds)theseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedrearrangedintoaninf

11、initenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwdsbutnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossiblefapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.5.WhatisproductivityProd

12、uctivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructunderstanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguageincludingthosethathasneverheardbefebutthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidheard“Aredey

13、edelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”buthecansayitwhennecessaryhecanunderstitinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativitythoughproductivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguagethusalsocalled“ruleboundcreativ

14、ity”(byN.Chomsky).6.Whatisdisplacement“Displacement”asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguagereferstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresentaseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwdsonecanrefertorealunrealthings

15、thingsofthepastofthepresentofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenamanfexampleiscryingtoawomanaboutsomethingitmightbesomethingthathadoccurredsomethingthatisoccurringsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarkinghowe

16、veryoucandecideitisbarkingfsomethingatsomeonethatexistsnowthere.Itcouldn’tbebowwowingsrowfullyfabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystemnohelesshasasmallshareof“displacement”butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.7.WhatisculturaltransmissionT

17、hismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationbutthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityflanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“l(fā)anguageacqui

18、sitiondevice”LAD)hasageicbasisbuttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageiconelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofw

19、olvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sThe“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimisfexampletoamusestartleantagonizesoothewryplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokesthough)aresupposedtoamuseentertainth

20、elisteneradvertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommoditiespropagatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviouslytheexpressivetheevocativefunctionsoftengotogetheri.e.youmayexpressfexampleyourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebu

21、tendupbyevokingthesamefeelinginimposingitonyourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.17.WhatistheperfmativefunctionThismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”perfmactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismei

22、mptantthanwhatwdssoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentencethepresident’swarindependencedeclarationetc.areperfmatives.18.Whatislinguistics“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjus

23、tonelanguageofanyonesocietybutthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguistthoughdoesnothavetoknowusealargenumberoflanguagesbuttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect

24、fromclasstoclasshowitchangesfromcenturytocenturyhowchildrenacquiretheirmothertongueperhapshowapersonlearnsshouldlearnafeignlanguage.Inshtlinguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedopera

25、teassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiescommunities。19.WhatmakeslinguisticsascienceSincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageitoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematicinvestigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthet

26、ruenatureoflanguageitsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedataalinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructuretobecheckedagainsttheobservedobservablefacts.Indertomakehisanalysisscientificalinguistisusuall

27、yguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustivenessconsistencyobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudygivethemanadequateexplanationinspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturn

28、ed.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy

29、alinguistshouldbe(soundatleast)objectivematteroffacefaithfultorealitysothathiswkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.20.WhatarethemajbranchesoflinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Butal

30、inguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatimethustheariseofvariousbranches:phoicsphonologymphologysyntaxsemanticspragmaticssociolinguisticsappliedlinguisticspsycholinguisticsetc.21.Whataresynchronicdiach

31、ronicstudiesThedeionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedeionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”fexamplemaybesyn

32、chroniciftheauthdoesnotrecallthepastofTHEitmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration.22.WhatisspeechwhatiswritingNooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleofl

33、inguisticanalysisnamelytheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimarybecauseitexistedlonglongbefewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geicallychildrenlearntospeakbefelearningtowrite.Secondlywrittenfmsjustrepresentinthiswaythatthes

34、peechsounds:individualsoundsasinEnglishFrenchasinJapanese.Incontrasttospeechspokenfmoflanguagewritingaswrittencodesgiveslanguagenewscopeusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstlymessagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwrite

35、toeachother.SecondlymessagescanbecarriedthroughtimetherebysothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimetherebysothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulfSamuelJohnsonEdgarA.Poe.Thirdlyalmessagesarereadilysubjecttodisttioneitherin

36、tentionalunintentionalwhilewrittenmessagesallowencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeechdifferentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturytheretofe.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedeivethe