普通心理學(xué)智力與心理測驗

1、Chapter 9Intelligence and Psychological Testing智力和心理測驗,心理學(xué)(家)的特點?,EmpiricismTheoretical diversitySocio_historical context Multifactorial causation,Cultural heritageHeredity and environment Subjectivity and experie

2、nce,本章的主要內(nèi)容,智力測驗測驗的一般概念智力測驗的進化智力測驗的基本問題極端智力智力遲緩智力超常智力發(fā)展遺傳的作用環(huán)境的作用文化的作用智力測量與研究的新方向,問題,智力測驗有什么用?如何判斷一個智力測驗?智力遲緩是否先天決定?天才是“白癡”？IQ能決定什么？。。。。,Types of TestMental ability(心理能力)Personality（人格）,Key Concepts in

3、Psychological Testing,Mental ability testsIntelligence tests (智力測驗)一般心理能力:信息加工的速度/深度與準確性;Aptitude tests（才能測驗）某一類心理潛能（specific）: verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning, perceptual speed and accuracy

4、, mechanical, spelling, language usage…Achievement tests（成就測驗）已學(xué)習(xí)過的知識的掌握程度,,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Personality testsPersonality traits (人格特質(zhì))Personality scale (人格量表) instead of test,Key Concepts in P

5、sychological Testing,Psychological test is a standardized（標準化） measure of a sample of a person’s behavior.Uniform administration； Uniform scoring；Norm (常模）_M,SDStandardization group（標準化群體）,Key Concepts in Psychologic

6、al Testing,Reliability（信度）Correlation coefficient（相關(guān)系數(shù)）Test-Retest reliability (再測信度)Practice effectAlternative or parallel forms reliability (復(fù)本信度)（A、B卷）Split-half reliability (分半信度)/內(nèi)在一致性信度（internal consistency re

7、liability）Above 0.70,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Figure 9.3Correlation and reliability. As explained in Chapter 2, a positive correlation means that two variables covary in the same direction; a negative corr

8、elation means that two variables covary in the opposite direction. The closer the correlation coefficient gets to either –1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship. At a minimum, reliability estimates for psychologica

9、l tests must be moderately high positive correlations. Most reliability coefficients fall between 70 and .95.,Figure 9.2Test-retest reliability（重測信度）. Subjects’ scores on the first administration of an assertivenes

10、s test are represented on the left, and their scores on a second administration of the same test a few weeks later are shown on the right. If subjects obtain similar scores on both administrations, as in the left graph,

11、the test measures assertiveness consistently and has high test-retest reliability. If they get very different scores on the second administration, as in the right graph, the test has low reliability.,Validity（效度）The abi

12、lity of a test to measure what it is designed to measureContent validity（內(nèi)容效度） Achievement test/educational testCriterion-related validity（效標關(guān)聯(lián)效度） 預(yù)測能力（aptitude test）Construct validity（結(jié)構(gòu)效度）Abstract personal qualit

13、ies, such as creativity, intelligence, extraversionHypothetical construct (假設(shè)的結(jié)構(gòu)),Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Figure 9.4Criterion-related validity（效標關(guān)聯(lián)效度）. To evaluate the criterion-related validity of a pilo

14、t aptitude test, a psychologist would correlate subjects’ test scores with a criterion measure of their aptitude, such as ratings of their performance in a pilot training program. The validity of the test is supported if

15、 a substantial correlation is found between the two measures. If little or no relationship exists between the two sets of scores, the data do not provide support for the validity of the test.,Figure 9.5Construct validit

16、y（結(jié)構(gòu)效度）. Psychologists evaluate a scale’s construct validity by studying how scores on the scale correlate with a variety of variables. For example, some of the evidence on the construct validity of the Expression S

17、cale from the Psychological Screening Inventory is summarized here. This scale is supposed to measure the personality trait of extraversion. As you can see on the left side of this network of correlations, the scale corr

18、elates negatively with measures of social introversion, social discomfort, and neuroticism, just as one would expect if the scale is really tapping extraversion. On the right, you can see that the scale is correlated pos

19、itively with measures of sociability and self-acceptance and another index of extraversion, as one would anticipate. At the bottom, you can see that the scale does not correlate with several traits that should be unrelat

20、ed to extraversion. Thus, the network of correlations depicted here supports the idea that the Expression Scale measures extraversion.,信度 VS 效度,如果有人用你的成人身高來評價智力,你感覺如何,這一測量是可信的,但它有效嗎?,Sir Francis Galton (1869) 高爾頓Family

21、tree studiesSensory testReaction time, sensitivity to high-pitched sounds, color perception, etc..Correlated with school or professional performance; Correlation（相關(guān)）, percentile test score（比例分）.,.,智力測量的歷史,高爾頓有關(guān)智力測量的主

22、要思想智力可定量個體差異呈鐘型曲線可由客觀測驗測得兩套測驗成績之間的相 關(guān)程度可通過統(tǒng)計分析確定智力由遺傳決定；,Alfred Binet (比納) and Theodore Simon (1905) 西蒙測驗內(nèi)容:判斷和推理等抽象思維(非機械記憶力); Mental ageHow to collect items?60% pass in the group.,比奈-西蒙測驗的特點測驗分數(shù)是當前操作的評估,并非

23、對天生智力的評估;測驗是為了更好地分班和教育,并非為了污蔑他們;強調(diào)訓(xùn)練可以影響智力發(fā)展;依據(jù)經(jīng)驗編制測驗--看是否有效?--并非依據(jù)某一智力理論;,,,Lewis Terman (特曼，1916, 37, 60, 73, 86)Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale測驗內(nèi)容：推理能力；Intelligence Quotient (William Stern,1914)WIQ)IQ=MA/CA

24、 x 100測驗修訂的理由用于不同的年齡及人群更新不適應(yīng)社會發(fā)展的條目更新常模,David Wechsler (韋克斯勒，1939, 49, 55, 67, 91 )Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleDeviation IQ (離差智商) IQ=100+15(X-M)/SDM，SD為常模特點，X為原始分。,Figure 9.7The normal distribution. 

25、;Many characteristics are distributed in a pattern represented by this bell-shaped curve. The horizontal axis shows how far above or below the mean a score is (measured in plus or minus standard deviations-標準差). The vert

26、ical axis is used to graph the number of cases obtaining each score. In a normal distribution, the cases are distributed in a fixed pattern. For instance, 68.26% of the cases fall between +1 and –1 standard deviation. Mo

27、dern IQ scores indicate where a person’s measured intelligence falls in the normal distribution. On most IQ tests, the mean is set at an IQ of 100 and the standard deviation at 15. Thus, an IQ of 130 means that a person

28、scored 2 standard deviations above the mean. Any deviation IQ score can be converted into a percentile score, which indicates the percentage of cases obtaining a lower score. The mental classifications at the bottom of t

29、he figure are descriptive labels that roughly correspond to ranges of IQ scores.,Do intelligence tests measure potential or knowledge?Intellectual potential Not affected by your knowledge backgroundApply relatively co

30、mmon knowledgeA blend of potential and knowledge,,關(guān)于智力測驗的主要問題,Predict school performance.50s-.60s with 學(xué)業(yè)成績可解釋成績總變異量的.25-.36;.60s-.80s with 學(xué)歷IQ說明1/4的社會地位變異,1/6的經(jīng)濟收入變異;父母社會經(jīng)濟地位對社會地位變異的解釋量為1/3,對經(jīng)濟收入的解釋量為1/5.預(yù)測力不如父母

31、社會經(jīng)濟地位?,IQ測驗可以預(yù)測什么？,MeasurementAbstract reasoning and verbal fluency(!!)Social competence, practical problem solving, creativity, mechanical ingenuity, artistic talent(??)Work by Robert Sternberg (1981)R. J. Sternber

32、g (IBM Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Yale University),原因分析,Figure 9.8Laypersons’ conceptions of intelligence. Robert Sternberg and his colleagues (1981) asked participants to list examples of b

33、ehaviors characteristic of intelligence. The examples tended to sort into three groups that represent the three types of intelligence recognized by the average person: verbal intelligence, practical intelligence, and soc

34、ial intelligence.,Job complexity may play a role between mental ability and job performance （Schmidt & Hunter, 2004),high,Job complexity,Western cultures with European rootsRapid information processingDecisive resp

35、ondingThe notion that ability can be quantifiedNon Western culturesPeople will be good at doing things that are important to them. (the ingredients of intelligence are cultural specific) JapanChina, IndiaTheme 3: P

36、sychology evolves in a socio-historical context.,Are IQ tests widely used in other cultures?,Mental Retardation (心理遲鈍)Diagnosis based on IQ and adaptive testing （American Association on Mental Retardation-AAMR)—2-3%IQ：

37、 2 or more SD below meanAdaptive skill deficits（適應(yīng)技巧缺陷）Origination before age 184 levels: mild(輕度), moderate（中度）,severe（重度）, profound（深度）Mild most common by far （pp. 355）--85%,2.1 Extremes of Intelligence: Mental R

38、etardation,心理遲緩的診斷:在適應(yīng)性技能等方面表現(xiàn)出缺陷,Figure 9.9The prevalence and severity of mental retardation. The overall prevalence of mental retardation is roughly 1 to 3% of the general population. The vast majority (85%) of t

39、he retarded population is mildly retarded. Only about 15% of the retarded population falls into the subcategories of moderate, severe, or profound retardation.,Causes:Biological Down syndrome (唐氏綜合癥)：21th. 染色體三體型；Phen

40、ylketonuria (苯丙酮尿癥/肝毒性癡呆癥)：amino acid phenylalanine（苯基丙氨酸）---（某種代謝酶的缺陷）--tyrosine(酪氨酸）--（合成各種兒茶酚氨）；Hydrocephaly (水腦)Environmental （Figure 9.10）IQ<50 IQ 60-69:,Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation,1:unskill

41、ed laborer;2:semiskilled laborer;3:skilled manual laborer; 4:artisan trade; 5: professional non-manual;,Identification issues – ideals vs. practiceGiftedness vs. high intelligenceIQ 2 SD above mean standardCreativity,

42、 leadership, special talent?Stereotypes – weak, socially inept, emotionally troubledLewis Terman (1925) – largely contradicted stereotypesEllen Winner (1997) – moderately(IQ130-150) vs. profoundly gifted (IQ>180)G

43、iftedness and high achievement – beyond IQ,2.2 Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness(天才),,,,Exceptional intelligence,Exceptional commitment(MOTIVATION),Exceptional creativity,,eminence,Renzulli(1986),creativity,Genera

44、tion of ideas that areOriginalNovelUsefulCreative achievements result from long time hard work;Depend on divergent thinking;,Correlates of creativity,Highly creative people: more autonomous, introverted, open to new

45、 experiences; self-confident, and self accepting;IQ of 120Connection between exceptional creativity and mental illness;,Figure 9.27Estimated prevalence of psychological disorders among people who achieved creative emi

46、nence. Ludwig (1995) studied biographies of 1004 people who had clearly achieved eminence in one of 18 fields and tried to determine whether each person suffered from any specific mental disorders in his or her life

47、time. The data summarized here show the prevalence rates for depression and for a mental disorder of any kind for four fields where creativity is often the key to achieving eminence. As you can see, the estimated prevale

48、nce of mental illness was extremely elevated among eminent writers, artists, and composers (but not natural scientists) in comparison to the general population, with depression accounting for much of this elevation.,Here

49、dity studies(遺傳研究)Family and twin studies (家族和雙子研究)Heritability estimates: a heritability ratio is an estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inherita

50、nce. (遺傳估計),Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?,LaunchVideo,Figure 9.12Studies of IQ similarity. The graph shows the mean correlations of IQ scores for people of various types of relationships, as obtained in s

51、tudies of IQ similarity. Higher correlations indicate greater similarity. The results show that greater genetic similarity is associated with greater similarity in IQ, suggesting that intelligence is partly inherited (co

52、mpare, for example, the correlations for identical and fraternal twins). However, the results also show that living together is associated with greater IQ similarity, suggesting that intelligence is partly governed by en

53、vironment (compare, for example, the scores of siblings reared together and reared apart). (Data from McGue et al., 1993),Figure 9.13The concept of heritability. A heritability ratio is an estimate of the portion o

54、f variation in a trait determined by heredity—with the remainder presumably determined by environment—as these pie charts illustrate. Typical heritability estimates for intelligence range between a high of 70% and a low

55、of 50%, although some estimates have fallen outside this range. Bear in mind that heritability ratios are estimates and have certain limitations that are discussed in the text.,What is the exactly meaning of heritability

56、 estimates?,智力變異由遺傳變異決定的比例；例如，性別的可遺傳性估計為99%身高的可遺傳估計為90%；快樂的可遺傳估計為40-50%；心理特質(zhì)的可遺傳性估計：20-60%,Environment studiesAdoption studies (收養(yǎng)研究)foster & biological parents;SiblingsUnrelated children (compared group),Int

57、elligence: Heredity or Environment?,LaunchVideo,遺傳、環(huán)境和IQ的關(guān)系,此圖表明遺傳和環(huán)境對IQ得分的貢獻。父子間的IQ相似（遺傳的影響），但是父親一兒子的IQ都與社會地位相關(guān)（環(huán)境的影響）,環(huán)境對IQ的影響,被撫養(yǎng)的兒童的IQ得分黑人和混血兒由中等階層的白人家庭撫養(yǎng)，他們的IQ值高于正常。因為孩子們來自于IQ值低于平均值的組中，這一數(shù)據(jù)顯示了環(huán)境對IQ的影響,Environment

58、Cumulative deprivation hypothesis(累積的剝奪假設(shè)）Home-environment and schooling effectsOrphanages,poverty…The Flynn effect (James Flynn): Generational increases in measured IQ;InteractionThe concept of the reaction range（遺

59、傳決定的可塑范圍）,Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?,LaunchVideo,Figure 9.15Reaction range. The concept of reaction range posits that heredity sets limits on one’s intellectual potential (represented by the horizontal

60、 bars), while the quality of one’s environment influences where one scores within this range (represented by the dots on the bars). People raised in enriched environments should score near the top of their reaction range

61、, whereas people raised in poor-quality environments should score near the bottom of their range. Genetic limits on IQ can be inferred only indirectly, so theorists aren’t sure whether reaction ranges are narrow (like Te

62、d’s) or wide (like Chris’s). The concept of reaction range can explain how two people with similar genetic potential can be quite different in intelligence (compare Tom and Jack) and how two people reared in environments

63、 of similar quality can score quite differently (compare Alice and Jack).,Heritability as an ExplanationAurthur Jensen (1969)Heritality estimates 80%Herrnstein and Murray (1994) – The Bell CurveRacial differences in

64、average intelligence;J.Phillipe Rushton & Arthur Jensen (2005); Linda Gottfredson (2005)Genetics factors account for about half of the gap between races in average IQ;,Cultural Differences in IQ,Figure 9.16Genetic

65、s and between-group differences on a trait. Kamin’s analogy (see text) shows how between-group differences on a trait (the height of corn plants) could be due to environment, even if the trait is largely inherited.

66、The same reasoning presumably applies to ethnic group differences in the trait of human intelligence.,Environment as an Explanation:Leon Kamin’s cornfield analogy,Cultural bias on IQ test: Featured study (Steele &

67、Aronson,1995),X: stereotype vulnerabilityTo test problem-solving strategies;To test general verbal ability;Y: GRE verbal,.,4.4 文化與IQ測驗的有效性,刻板印象威脅,Exploring Biological indexes and correlates of IntelligenceAttempt to

68、 focus on culture free measures of intelligenceReaction time (RT) as measure of mental speed (Arthur Jensen, Hans Eysenck )Modest correlation (0.2-0.3) with IQ test;Inspection time: time to make a perceptual discrim