2011年--營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略外文翻譯--20世紀(jì)10至40年代“4p營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略”在美國(guó)的先例（節(jié)選）

1、<p>　　3428漢字，1930單詞，11000英文字符</p><p>　　畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)外文資料翻譯</p><p>　　系： 經(jīng)濟(jì)管理系 </p><p>　　專(zhuān) 業(yè)： 市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo) </p><p>　　

2、姓 名： </p><p>　　學(xué) 號(hào)： </p><p>　　外文出處：European Business Review Vol.23 </p><p>　　NO.2,2011.136-153 </

3、p><p>　　附 件： 1.外文資料翻譯譯文；2.外文原文。 </p><p>　　注：請(qǐng)將該封面與附件裝訂成冊(cè)。</p><p>　　附件1：外文資料翻譯譯文</p><p>　　20世紀(jì)10至40年代“4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略”在美國(guó)的先例</p><p>　　Kazuo Usui</p><p>

4、　　日本埼玉大學(xué)，及英國(guó)愛(ài)丁堡大學(xué)</p><p><b>　　摘要</b></p><p><b>　　研究目的：</b></p><p>　　考證4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在美國(guó)20世紀(jì)10至40年代的發(fā)展，并探索其歷史背景。</p><p><b>　　研究方法：</b></p&

5、gt;<p>　　4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略先例的歷史考察，不僅著眼于策略本身，同時(shí)也對(duì)其所根植的歷史聯(lián)系給予關(guān)注。這項(xiàng)分析，既有對(duì)傳統(tǒng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)功能方式的重新審視，也包含對(duì)先前研究的不同解讀。</p><p><b>　　研究結(jié)論：</b></p><p>　　4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略并非在20世紀(jì)50年代突然出現(xiàn)，而應(yīng)追溯到20世紀(jì)10年代?；谑袌?chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的進(jìn)展和經(jīng)營(yíng)過(guò)程中的規(guī)劃的分

6、離，伴隨著各種有關(guān)銷(xiāo)售管理、銷(xiāo)售/營(yíng)銷(xiāo)政策和營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理的討論，4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)組合策略應(yīng)運(yùn)而生。</p><p><b>　　研究局限：</b></p><p>　　這項(xiàng)研究意味著歷史研究可以豐富我們的知識(shí)。這次調(diào)查僅限于美國(guó)：其他國(guó)家的研究調(diào)查應(yīng)該基于他們自己的歷史市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)和市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)思想。</p><p><b>　　實(shí)際意義：</b&

7、gt;</p><p>　　認(rèn)識(shí)之前的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)人員和營(yíng)銷(xiāo)思想家，可為探索營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略該如何形成提供廣泛而堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。</p><p><b>　　原創(chuàng)/價(jià)值：</b></p><p>　　有關(guān)4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在二戰(zhàn)前期的思想研究是對(duì)市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的歷史研究的一個(gè)獨(dú)特的貢獻(xiàn)，本文對(duì)市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理及其思想發(fā)展提出新的見(jiàn)解。</p><p>&l

8、t;b>　　關(guān)鍵詞：</b></p><p>　　美利堅(jiān)合眾國(guó) 市場(chǎng) 營(yíng)銷(xiāo)史 管理角色</p><p><b>　　論文類(lèi)型：研究論文</b></p><p><b>　　引言：</b></p><p>　　4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略是何時(shí)產(chǎn)生、如何發(fā)展的？雖然4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在聞名全世，并在市場(chǎng)領(lǐng)

9、域時(shí)常運(yùn)用，但令人驚訝的是，如此簡(jiǎn)單的問(wèn)題至今未有完整回答。當(dāng)然，美國(guó)有很多關(guān)于營(yíng)銷(xiāo)學(xué)的歷史研究。比如，匡威，1959；巴特爾斯，1962年，1976年，1988年；施瓦茲，1963年，1965年；賴(lài)特，1974；舍特，1988；蕭伯納和瓊斯，2005。盡管如此，在4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略上仍有尚待討論的話(huà)題。本文將研究4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在美國(guó)的發(fā)展及其歷史背景。</p><p>　　被營(yíng)銷(xiāo)界的歷史學(xué)家共同認(rèn)知的是，在二十世紀(jì)就有

10、大量的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)作品開(kāi)始出現(xiàn)，并且，在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)之前，存在著三個(gè)經(jīng)典的方法，它們分別是：一、商品的方法(專(zhuān)注于商品和服務(wù)的特點(diǎn)，在營(yíng)銷(xiāo)過(guò)程中處理)；二、機(jī)構(gòu)的方法(識(shí)別各種類(lèi)型的中間商或機(jī)構(gòu)處理商品和服務(wù))；三、功能的方法(討論其在營(yíng)銷(xiāo)過(guò)程中的作用)。</p><p>　　通常認(rèn)為，4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略是在20世紀(jì)50年代由管理學(xué)校第一次提出。功能學(xué)派（Hunt和Gloosby，1988年）的歷史研究中提到：1950年，格

11、雷提出了“市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)職能新名單”，這預(yù)示著市場(chǎng)研究中新的管理途徑的興起和舊的功能途徑的滅亡。隨后，1957年，霍華德提出了“可控”與“不可控”因素間的區(qū)別。其中，對(duì)于營(yíng)銷(xiāo)者來(lái)說(shuō)，前者構(gòu)成了產(chǎn)品的差異化——營(yíng)銷(xiāo)渠道、 價(jià)格、 促銷(xiāo)和位置。最終，在1960年，麥卡錫為4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略下了著名的定義。</p><p>　　然而，人們也認(rèn)為，4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略也和古典學(xué)校的許多作品存在聯(lián)系。有很多作品是從管理的角度來(lái)研究的，如銷(xiāo)售管

12、理及廣告。本文將確定，在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)之前，4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在這些管理為導(dǎo)向的作品中先例。在此期間，4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略并非象征著古典作品的“營(yíng)銷(xiāo)法則”。它曾被冠以各種不同的名稱(chēng)，例如：銷(xiāo)售控制、銷(xiāo)售管理，或營(yíng)銷(xiāo)技巧、市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)，甚至是市場(chǎng)管理。同時(shí)，本文也將提供4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在1910年-1940年期間已有先例的相關(guān)證據(jù)。重要的是，本文將揭示出功能學(xué)派與管理派兩者觀點(diǎn)之間的聯(lián)系。然后，將探討以上論斷的一般背景。</p><p>

13、;　　4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略的歷史發(fā)展</p><p>　　功能學(xué)派中可識(shí)別的兩個(gè)不同支流</p><p>　　根據(jù)1921年Vanderblue的經(jīng)典陳述中，以功能方式進(jìn)行市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)，最初是在1912年，由Shaw提出的。他指出，“中間商的功能"有：</p><p><b>　　分擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn) ；</b></p><p>&l

14、t;b>　　運(yùn)送貨物 ；</b></p><p><b>　　融資操作 ；</b></p><p>　　銷(xiāo)售（或交流關(guān)于貨物的想法）；以及</p><p>　　裝配、 分類(lèi)和重新裝運(yùn)。</p><p>　　五年后，Weld將此想法擴(kuò)展成為"營(yíng)銷(xiāo)職能"，包括：</p>&

15、lt;p><b>　　裝配 ；</b></p><p><b>　　存儲(chǔ) ；</b></p><p><b>　　風(fēng)險(xiǎn)假設(shè) ；</b></p><p><b>　　融資 ；</b></p><p><b>　　重排 ；</b>&

16、lt;/p><p><b>　　銷(xiāo)售 ；以及</b></p><p><b>　　運(yùn)輸。</b></p><p>　　此后，許多傳統(tǒng)學(xué)者開(kāi)始以不同的角度來(lái)審視營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的職能，其中就包括Cherington（1920 年）、Clerk ([1922] 1978年) 等。功能派的歷史研究一般就是以這條發(fā)展道路來(lái)追溯的。</p&g

17、t;<p>　　然而，傳統(tǒng)的討論傾向于介紹其中的混亂——在"市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)職能"這一相同的名字下，同時(shí)含有兩種不同的功能類(lèi)型：1、分銷(xiāo)渠道的功能，一如上文Shaw所述；2、市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的管理功能，另一種不同類(lèi)型的功能探討。例如，在一個(gè)表單中，Ryan（1935年）列舉了16種“功能類(lèi)別”和120種“功能要素”來(lái)表示“行政人員”和“一般的管理和戰(zhàn)略”。顯然，這些因素應(yīng)列屬為管理功能，而非分銷(xiāo)渠道的功能。幾乎在營(yíng)銷(xiāo)思

18、想出現(xiàn)的同時(shí)，管理功能的討論就成為了古典管理思想的一個(gè)重要事項(xiàng)。</p><p>　　弗雷德里克 ? 泰勒所倡導(dǎo)的“科學(xué)管理”象征著現(xiàn)代管理思想的開(kāi)始。隨著1910年的東部速率，這個(gè)思想在美國(guó)獲得了相當(dāng)大的社會(huì)關(guān)注度。不過(guò)，后來(lái)的鑒定結(jié)果顯示，“泰勒，他自己，聲稱(chēng)對(duì)這個(gè)思想并不具有壟斷或原創(chuàng)資格”（吉爾布雷思和謝斐，1960年，第5頁(yè)）。甚至，一位當(dāng)代評(píng)論員指出，作為泰勒思想基礎(chǔ)（湯普森，1915 年，體育 27

19、0）的“計(jì)劃與執(zhí)行分離”之構(gòu)想，也可以在1832年英國(guó)查爾斯 ? 巴貝奇的作品中找到線(xiàn)索[1]（湯普森，1914年，第6頁(yè)）。在后期的研究中，由于泰勒（1903年-1895年）的最初構(gòu)想局限于車(chē)間一級(jí)的管理(昆茨和奧唐奈，1959 年，第20頁(yè))，學(xué)者趨向于認(rèn)為，法國(guó)理論家Fayol（[1917] 1949年）是一般管理思想的先驅(qū)。即便是在泰勒晚年(1911年，[1912] 1972年），他嘗試超越原始的物資管理達(dá)到普適管理層面而向“科

20、學(xué)管理”所作的邁進(jìn)，也同樣受到Fayol的影響。甚至在Fayol思想影響美國(guó)之前[2]，就有許多關(guān)于管理功能在企業(yè)層面的討論——其中不乏Taylor Society([1929] 1972)等泰勒思想的繼承者，也有Church (</p><p>　　由此，以時(shí)而平行時(shí)而令人困惑的方式，營(yíng)銷(xiāo)功能和管理功能在被一同討論著。這里，存在一個(gè)問(wèn)題：在這些在市場(chǎng)中管理功能的討論里，如何確認(rèn)4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略的發(fā)展路徑。</

21、p><p><b>　　管理過(guò)程學(xué)派的框架</b></p><p>　　早在1910年，就出現(xiàn)了許多銷(xiāo)售管理的作品（如，Hoyt，1913；Jones[1917] 1922；Russel，1922； Hall，1924； Aspley，1929； Hay，1929）。這些作品中的討論，或多或少，都涉及到了銷(xiāo)售管理層面上的組成部分，如招聘、培訓(xùn)、薪資和銷(xiāo)售業(yè)務(wù)的控制方式(U

22、sui，2008年）。然而，只有極少數(shù)考慮到了市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)層面的管理。</p><p>　　Butler(1914,1917)展開(kāi)了一次透徹的探討。他清晰地將“市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)”定義為“商業(yè)活動(dòng)背后的運(yùn)作規(guī)劃”，并將“待售貨物”、“商品市場(chǎng)”及“進(jìn)入目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)的方法”作為這個(gè)規(guī)劃的組成部分。這個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單想法有兩個(gè)基本特征：第一，作為最早的明確倡導(dǎo)者，它將規(guī)劃從營(yíng)銷(xiāo)行為的執(zhí)行層面分離出來(lái)。按規(guī)劃的組成來(lái)判定，它不再是一種銷(xiāo)售行為。第

23、二，這些規(guī)劃的組成部分恰恰正是4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的前身。</p><p>　　第一個(gè)特征是討論管理思想的起始點(diǎn)，并進(jìn)一步發(fā)展了管理過(guò)程學(xué)派，他們提到“管理，是一個(gè)以有組織的團(tuán)隊(duì)將事情完成的過(guò)程”（Koontz，1961年，第175頁(yè))。雖然在企業(yè)中的功能方面的傳統(tǒng)討論有不同的劃分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，如：管理行為的特點(diǎn)（例如，流水線(xiàn)和工作人員的行為），或者，垂直關(guān)系（例如，管理人員和一線(xiàn)人員），管理過(guò)程主要專(zhuān)注于管理功能的序列上。在這方面

24、，Percival White更值得關(guān)注(Usui，2008年，第51-60頁(yè)）。他在題為商務(wù)管理 （1926 年）和市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理（1927 年）的教材中，將管理過(guò)程描述為一個(gè)周期（Usui，2008 年，第56和57）。正如布朗（2001年）所指出的，科特勒在營(yíng)銷(xiāo)方面的教科書(shū)是目前公認(rèn)具有代表性的教材，他描繪的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理是作為分析、 規(guī)劃、 實(shí)施和控制的范例。</p><p>　　因此，周期性過(guò)程的管理理念，為營(yíng)

25、銷(xiāo)管理確立了一個(gè)基礎(chǔ)的、持續(xù)發(fā)展的思想構(gòu)架。</p><p><b>　　4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略的家譜</b></p><p>　　4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略在歷史發(fā)展中的另一個(gè)重要方面是第二個(gè)特點(diǎn)。那就是，營(yíng)銷(xiāo)規(guī)劃的組成部分是如何區(qū)別于銷(xiāo)售計(jì)劃或銷(xiāo)售指標(biāo)的。如上文所述，Butler的構(gòu)想中，因素包括：產(chǎn)品（要出售的貨物），地域或渠道（進(jìn)入目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)的方法），以及市場(chǎng)研究（貨物市場(chǎng)）。此外，B

26、utler對(duì)他所說(shuō)的“市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)”或“營(yíng)銷(xiāo)方法”以及銷(xiāo)售和廣告進(jìn)行了清晰地界定：</p><p>　　在某種意義上，市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)方法，是指為了影響銷(xiāo)售所做的一切。然而，通常情況下，營(yíng)銷(xiāo)方法的研究并不包括廣告手段和推銷(xiāo)技術(shù) （Butler 1914 年，第2頁(yè)；1917年，第5頁(yè)）。</p><p>　　在Butler的宣傳下，一些營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理方面的作者開(kāi)始將除雜項(xiàng)因素之外的元素——如產(chǎn)品、價(jià)格和地點(diǎn)

27、（渠道），涵蓋到營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理之中。例如，F(xiàn)rederick ([1919] 1978)討論了“市場(chǎng)導(dǎo)向的產(chǎn)品塑造”、“定價(jià)和價(jià)格保護(hù)”以及“實(shí)現(xiàn)成功分銷(xiāo)”。總計(jì)34章的內(nèi)容中，有許多與傳統(tǒng)話(huà)題銷(xiāo)售隊(duì)伍的管理有關(guān)，如銷(xiāo)售員的選擇、支付方式、各項(xiàng)公約、銷(xiāo)售學(xué)校及培訓(xùn)等。</p><p>　　一位重要人物是Tosdal(1921、1925、1931、1933、1939、1940年）。早在 1921年，在市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的案例書(shū)中T

28、osdal用了“營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理”一詞，也許是其第一次：“相較于“銷(xiāo)售管理”，這位作家是更傾向于使用“營(yíng)銷(xiāo)管理”一詞作為更清楚的領(lǐng)域范圍指示”(p.xx)。Tosdal為"銷(xiāo)售管理"所下的定義——“市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)功能運(yùn)作中所需的一項(xiàng)管理領(lǐng)域，特別是售賣(mài)領(lǐng)域”（第 1 頁(yè))——被國(guó)家營(yíng)銷(xiāo)教師協(xié)會(huì)命名委員會(huì)(NAMT) (NAMT 1935， p. 162)認(rèn)定為是銷(xiāo)售管理“廣義表述”。，除開(kāi)銷(xiāo)售團(tuán)隊(duì)的許多因素（NAMT所定義的銷(xiāo)售管

29、理的“狹義表述”），Tosdal所考慮的銷(xiāo)售管理還涵蓋了與產(chǎn)品有關(guān)的政策、價(jià)格、渠道。如本文中所示的附錄，Tosdal的話(huà)題往往是有限定，并趨向于4P營(yíng)銷(xiāo)概念的。</p><p>　　附件2：外文原文（復(fù)印件）</p><p>　　Precedents for the 4Ps idea in the USA: 1910s-1940s</p><p>　　Kazuo

30、Usui</p><p>　　Saitama University, Saitama City, Japan and University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK</p><p><b>　　Abstract</b></p><p>　　Purpose – The purpose of this paper is

31、 to identify the development of the 4Ps idea from the 1910s to the 1940s in the USA and explore its historical background.</p><p>　　Design/methodology/approach – The historical consideration of the precedent

32、s for the 4Ps idea is not only focused just on the idea, but also on the historical context in which it was produced. The analysis will include a re-examination of the traditional “functional approach” to marketing thoug

33、ht, leading to different interpretations from previous research.</p><p>　　Findings – The 4Ps idea did not suddenly appear in the 1950s, but had precedents that could be traced back to the 1910s. Based on the

34、 separation of planning from implementation and ideas on management process, the precedents for the 4Ps appeared as various discussions on components of the planning function in sales management, sales/marketing policies

35、 and marketing management.</p><p>　　Research limitations/implications – The research implies the historical study could enrich our knowledge. This investigation is limited to the USA: other studies could inv

36、estigate the history of marketing and marketing thought in other countries.</p><p>　　Practical implications – Recognizing how previous marketers and marketing thinkers considered the issues could provide a b

37、road and solid basis to explore how marketing strategy should be formed.</p><p>　　Originality/value – Identifying the antecedents of the 4Ps before the Second World War is a unique contribution to historical

38、 research in marketing. This paper provides a new interpretation of the development of marketing management and its thought.</p><p>　　Keywords United States of America, Marketing, Business history, Managemen

39、t roles</p><p>　　Paper type Research paper</p><p>　　Introduction</p><p>　　When was the 4Ps idea born and how did it develop? Amazingly, this simple question has not yet been fully a

40、nswered, although the 4Ps concept, framing the components of the marketing mix, is known worldwide and often treated as almost synonymous with the idea of marketing or marketing management itself. There have been, of cou

41、rse, many distinguished historical studies on marketing literature in the USA (Converse, [1959] 1978; Coolsen, 1960; Bartels, 1962, 1976, 1988; Schwartz, 1963, 1965; Wright </p><p>　　A common recognition amo

42、ng the marketing historians focusing on US marketing thought is that large amounts of marketing literature began to appear around the turn of the twentieth century despite the existence of some prior examples, and that t

43、here were three classical approaches or schools before the Second World War: the commodity approach (focusing on the features of goods and services that are dealt with in the marketing process), the institutional approac

44、h (identifying the various types of </p><p>　　Nevertheless, it has also been recognised that alongside the literature based on the classical schools, there were many works from the managerial perspective, su

45、ch as sales management and advertising. This paper will identify the precedent for the 4Ps idea among these management-oriented works before the Second World War, which were called by various names at the time, including

46、 sales management, sales administration, sales or marketing policies, marketing or even marketing management, rather th</p><p>　　The historical development of the 4Ps idea</p><p>　　Two different

47、 streams identifiable in the functional school of marketing</p><p>　　According to the classical statement by Vanderblue (1921), the functional approach to marketing was started by Shaw (1912), who proposed t

48、he “functions of the middlemen” as:</p><p>　　sharing the risk;</p><p>　　transporting the goods;</p><p>　　financing the operation;</p><p>　　selling (or communication of

49、ideas about the goods); and</p><p>　　assembling, assorting and re-shipping.</p><p>　　The idea was expanded to “marketing functions” by Weld (1917) to include:</p><p>　　assembling;&l

50、t;/p><p><b>　　storing;</b></p><p>　　assumption of risks;</p><p>　　financing;</p><p>　　rearrangement;</p><p>　　selling; and</p><p>　　t

51、ransportation.</p><p>　　Then many traditional scholars, including Cherington (1920), Clerk ([1922] 1978) and others, looked at the marketing functions from various angles. The historical research in the func

52、tional school has generally traced this development path.</p><p>　　Nevertheless, the classical discussions tended to introduce confusion in that they sometimes embrace the two different types of function

53、s under the same heading of “marketing functions”: the functions performed by the distribution channels, which originated in Shaw as shown above, and the management functions in marketing, a different type of discussion

54、on functions. For instance, in a list that enumerated 16 “functional categories” and 120 “functional elements”, Ryan (1935) indicat</p><p>　　The beginning of modern management thought was symbolised

55、 by “scientific management” advocated by Frederick W. Taylor. This idea attracted considerable public attention in American society with the Eastern Rate Case in 1910. As later assessments revealed afterwards, however, “

56、Taylor, himself, claimed no monopolistic right to or authorship of management” (Gilbreth and Jaffe, 1960, p. 5). Even a contemporary commentator indicated that the idea of “the separation of planning from execution”,whic

57、h w</p><p>　　Thus, marketing functions and management functions were discussed in parallel, and sometimes confusing, ways. A question is, how the development path of the 4Ps idea can be identified among thes

58、e discussions of management functions in marketing.</p><p>　　The framework of the management process school</p><p>　　In the 1910s, many works of sales management appeared (Hoyt, 1913; Jones [191

59、7] 1922; Russel, 1922; Hall, 1924; Aspley, 1929; Hay, 1929). This type of literature discussed more or less the components of planning on the sales management level, such as hiring, training, payments and methods of cont

60、rolling sales operations (Usui, 2008). Nevertheless, only a few considered the issue at the level of marketing management.</p><p>　　An explicit discussion was provided by Butler (1914, 1917). He clearly defi

61、ned “marketing” as the “plan behind the campaign”, and the “goods that are to be sold”, the “market for the goods” and the “methods of reaching the desired market” as the essential components of this plan. This simple id

62、ea had two essential features. First, it can be evaluated as the earliest explicit advocate of the separation of planning from</p><p>　　execution at the level of marketing activities, not sales activities, j

63、udged by the components in planning. Second, it was these components in the planning function which were the predecessor of the 4Ps idea.</p><p>　　The first feature was the starting point of discussion of th

64、e managerial idea, and was to develop the management process school, which referred to “management as a process</p><p>　　of getting things done through and with people operating in organized groups” (Koontz,

65、 1961, p. 175). While the classical discussions on the functions in an enterprise included various criteria to divide the functions, such as the characteristics of management</p><p>　　activities (e.g. line a

66、nd staff activities) and the vertical relationships (e.g. administrations and operations), the idea of management process focused on the sequence of management functions. In this respect, Percival White deserves great

67、er attention</p><p>　　(Usui, 2008, pp. 51-60). His textbooks entitled Business Management (1926) and Marketing Management (1927) depicted the management process as a cycle (Usui, 2008, pp. 56 and 57). As Br

68、own (2001) indicated, Kotler’s textbooks on marketing management, which are generally recognised as representative current textbooks,</p><p>　　were characterised as the paradigm of analysis, plannin

69、g, implementation and control. Thus, the idea on the cyclical process of management established a fundamental, ongoing framework for marketing management thought.</p><p>　　Genealogy of the 4Ps idea</p>

70、<p>　　An essential dimension in terms of historical development of the 4Ps concept was the second feature; that is, how components of the planning function were considered differently from the plan for sales manag

71、ement or sales force management. Butler’s idea, as mentioned above, included the factors of product (the goods that are to be sold) and place or channel (the methods of reaching the desired market), as well as market res

72、earch (the market for the goods). In addition, Butler clearly distinguish</p><p>　　Marketing methods, in a sense, are inclusive of everything that is done to influence sales. Ordinarily, however, the study o

73、f marketing methods excludes the consideration of the technique of advertising and the technique of salesmanship (Butler 1914, p. 2; 1917, p. 5).</p><p>　　After Butler’s advocacy, some writers on sales manag

74、ement began to include the elements of product, price and place (channel), in addition to miscellaneous factors in sales management. For instance, Frederick ([1919] 1978) discussed “shaping the product for the market”, “

75、price-making and price protection” and “achieving successful distribution” among 34 chapters in total, many of which dealt with traditional topics in sales force management, such as selection of salesmen, paying methods,

76、 quotas,</p><p>　　An important figure was Tosdal (1921, 1925, 1931, 1933, 1939, 1940). As early as 1921, in a marketing case book Tosdal used the term “marketing management” perhaps for the first time: “Whil

77、e the writer is inclined to favour ‘marketing management’ as indicating more clearly the scope of the field, usage favours the term ‘sales management’” (p. xx). Tosdal’s definition for “sales management” – “the field of

78、management required for the performance of marketing functions, particularly selling” (p. 1</p><p>　　of the AMA. What Tosdal considered the field of sales management embraced policies relating to product, pr

79、ice and distribution, in addition to many factors for sales force management (the “narrow usage” of sales management defined by NAMT). As shown in the appendix to this paper, Tosdal’s topics tended to be limited and move