外文翻譯--挑戰(zhàn)的國際合作,以擴(kuò)大航空和航運(yùn)

1、<p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p><p><b>　　外文原文：</b></p><p>　　22.7 Challenges of extending international co-operation to aviation and shipping</p><p>　　Extending the coverage

2、 of carbon pricing and other measures to international aviation will become increasingly important.</p><p>　　Globally, international aviation emissions – defined as emissions from any aircraft leaving one co

3、untry and landing in another – are about twice as great as domestic aviation emissions. As set out in Chapter 15, the impact of aviation on climate change is also higher than the impact of its CO2 emissions alone. Aviati

4、on has negative local impacts on noise, local air quality, biodiversity, and local climate impacts, for which local policy interventions (such as regulation on noise levels) can be u</p><p>　　However, there

5、is currently no incentive to reduce international aviation emissions, as only emissions from domestic flights are currently allocated to any country within national emissions inventories. Furthermore, many large internat

6、ional markets are outside the current Kyoto obligations framework. However, the industry is growing fast, and people with lower incomes, especially in developed countries, are now able to travel globally due to low-cost

7、flights. Many national policy measures such a</p><p>　　International coordination on reducing emissions from aviation is important, for example, to avoid leakage of mitigation policies from travellers switch

8、ing to different carriers, or air carriers changing their routes, or practices such as ‘tankering’ (i.e. carrying excess fuel on planes to avoid refueling at airports where fuel taxes are levied). The UNFCCC has requeste

9、d the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) to take action on aviation emissions, recognising that a global approach </p><p><b>　　-1-</b></p><p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p>

10、<p>　　The issue of aviation causing higher climate change impacts than simply that from its CO2 emissions could be tackled by setting high carbon taxes on aviation. However, we noted the particular difficulty of c

11、o-ordinating international taxes in Chapter 15. The ICAO has recently endorsed the concept of an ETS for aviation, while the EU is currently developing a draft Directive to include aviation in the EU ETS. The EU Environm

12、ent Council has suggested some preliminary guiding principles to be taken</p><p>　　The international co-ordination of standards, including through voluntary approaches, is also an important measure. Existing

13、 international co-operation under the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe (ACARE) requires new aircraft produced in 2020 to be 50% more fuel efficient per seat kilometre relative to their equivalents in 2

14、000. As the target refers to new aircraft produced in 2020, it will take time for the fuel efficiency of the whole fleet to improve because of the long life</p><p>　　Complementary measures to trading and sta

15、ndard setting include co-operation on technology, sharing best practice in ground operations, and realising the potential to</p><p><b>　　-2-</b></p><p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p>&l

16、t;p>　　reduce emissions through enhanced air traffic management improvements.</p><p>　　Extending the coverage of carbon pricing to international shipping has been slow, but is likely to increase in momentu

17、m.</p><p>　　Discussions on tacking the climate change impact of the international maritime industry are at a very early stage. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Assembly in December 2003 urged it

18、s Maritime Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) to identify and develop the mechanism or mechanisms that can achieve the limitation or reduction of GHG emissions from international shipping, and asked for the evalua

19、tion of technical, operational and market-based solutions to limiting the GHG output </p><p>　　The UK, under the lead of the domestic Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA), has been pushing the IMO to conside

20、r a full range of technical, methodological and market-based options for controlling maritime transport’s emissions of GHGs, particularly CO2. Discussions are continuing on the feasibility of the EU incorporating this se

21、ctor into the EU ETS as a demonstration not only of the seriousness with which the EU views this issue but also of the effectiveness of emissions trading as a control m</p><p>　　22.8 Interactions with the in

22、ternational trade regime</p><p>　　The international trade regime offers one route to handle large disparities in levels of carbon pricing between major economies.</p><p>　　Some economists have a

23、nalysed the potential to use the international trade regime to respond to significant differences in the level of carbon prices applied in different economies. Countries could in theory impose a border tax on imports fro

24、m countries with lower carbon prices – to correct for the under pricing of carbon in the country of origin. This could overcome carbon leakage or competitiveness concerns by reducing the incentive for domestic production

25、 to relocate abroad, and could increas</p><p>　　There has been a long-standing debate about whether border tax adjustments in response to carbon price differentials would be legal under World Trade Organisat

26、ion (WTO) rules. Since the early 1980s, several cases have been brought to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and the WTO that have implications for </p><p><b>　　-3-</b></p>

27、<p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p><p>　　environmental measures or human health-related measures. In particular, the 1998 ruling on the ‘shrimp-turtle’ case can be used to suggest that, as long as border adjustme

28、nts or regulations on greenhouse gas intensity of the production process are carried out in a non-discriminatory way, they are likely to be permitted.</p><p>　　Adjustments to take account of carbon price dif

29、ferentials could also occur if exporter countries voluntarily impose export restraints within bilateral or multilateral agreements. For example, after the abolition of a global quota system, China had offered to raise it

30、s export tariffs and reduce export tax rebate rates to help manage the entry of their textiles into the EU and US markets. Under this arrangement, the revenues would have been paid to the Chinese government but EU and US

31、 producers wo</p><p>　　Notwithstanding the logic of trade measures, their potential misuse could have serious consequences for international relations and future co-operation.</p><p>　　As we hav

32、e demonstrated in Chapter 12, the competitiveness impacts that underlie these arguments for adjustments should not be overplayed. Those findings also mean that, for many goods, given their cost structures, such border ad

33、justments may not change patterns and trends of international trade significantly. However, border tariffs or similar measures to adjust for carbon price differentials could be undesirable for the following reasons:</

34、p><p>　　?Barriers to trade are inefficient. The removal of trade barriers allows countries to develop comparative advantage in production. Therefore, even if effective, they are clearly second best to implement

35、ing a similar carbon price across the global economy.</p><p>　　?There would be technical challenges, whether border adjustments are set nationally or multilaterally, as the current structures of cross-border

36、 levies and subsidies are extremely complex.</p><p>　　?If the measures are effective, they could have detrimental effects on developing countries with high export dependency on carbon-intensive goods. In Cha

37、pter 23 we examine the transition to low-carbon economies in developing countries.</p><p>　　?The measures could become a pretext for other measures that are essentially protectionist and support inefficient

38、industries. This has been the danger of imposing non-tariff barriers, such as phytosanitary standards, that can be used to deny entry of exports from developing countries into rich countries.</p><p><b>

39、;　　-4-</b></p><p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p><p>　　?Such measures could make it considerably more difficult to build the trust necessary for future international co-operation. </p><p&g

40、t;　　Nevertheless, there remains the risk that in the face of significant and long-running divergences in levels of carbon pricing across borders, industry will lobby for the implementation of these measures. Chapter 23 e

41、xplores how the removal of trade barriers could be used to encourage mitigation, particularly in developing countries.</p><p>　　Source: Nicolas Stern. The Economies of climate change: The Stern Review [M].Ca

42、mbridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 485-487.</p><p><b>　　-5-</b></p><p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p><p>　　譯文：22.7挑戰(zhàn)的國際合作,以擴(kuò)大航空和航運(yùn)</p><p>　　擴(kuò)展覆蓋的碳定價(jià)和其他措施,國際航空

43、將變得越來越重要。</p><p>　　在全球范圍內(nèi),國際航空排放被定義為任何飛機(jī)離開一個(gè)國家和降落在另一個(gè)兩倍大的國家所產(chǎn)生的航空排放。在第十五章規(guī)定,航空影響氣候變化也高于其二氧化碳排放量的影響。航空有負(fù)面影響噪音的地方,當(dāng)?shù)氐目諝赓|(zhì)量、生物多樣性和當(dāng)?shù)貧夂虻挠绊?當(dāng)?shù)卣吒深A(yù)(如規(guī)定噪聲水平)可以使用。</p><p>　　然而,目前還沒有激勵(lì)機(jī)制來減少國際航空排放量,因?yàn)橹挥袕?/p>

44、國內(nèi)航班目前分配到任何國家的二氧化碳排放清單。此外,許多大型國際市場(chǎng)是當(dāng)前京都義務(wù)框架之外。然而,這個(gè)行業(yè)正在快速增長(zhǎng),收入較低的人,特別是在發(fā)達(dá)國家, 由于低成本航班，現(xiàn)在能夠在全球旅行。許多國家的政策措施如卸貨費(fèi)往往會(huì)減少碳排放。然而,區(qū)分它們,例如,通過飛行路程的長(zhǎng)度或?qū)?huì)提高他們的影響在減少排放。</p><p>　　關(guān)于減少溫室氣體排放的國際協(xié)調(diào)對(duì)于航空是很重要的,例如,避免泄漏的緩解政策從旅客選擇不同

45、航空公司,或航空公司改變他們的路線,或?qū)嵺`如“tankering”(即在飛機(jī)上攜帶多余的燃料,以避免在機(jī)場(chǎng)加油,燃油稅征收)?！堵?lián)合國氣候變化框架公約》要求國際民用航空組織(ICAO)對(duì)航空排放采取行動(dòng),認(rèn)識(shí)到全球的方法是至關(guān)重要的。國際民航組織成立了一個(gè)委員會(huì)在航空中保護(hù)環(huán)境,制定部分與氣候變化相關(guān)的溫室氣體排放工作計(jì)劃。當(dāng)前的任務(wù)包括開發(fā)指導(dǎo)國家希望采取向前排放交易計(jì)劃,以及建立一個(gè)更好的理解，潛在的權(quán)衡提高二氧化碳排放和其他環(huán)境的

46、影響。然而,這些措施不自己控制排放。</p><p>　　這個(gè)問題導(dǎo)致更高的航空氣候變化的影響，在航空中通過設(shè)置高碳稅，比較簡(jiǎn)單地可以解決其二氧化碳排放量。然而, 在第十五章，我們注意到特殊困難的國際稅收協(xié)調(diào)。ICAO最近支持的概念對(duì)于航空業(yè)ETS,而歐盟目前正在開發(fā)一個(gè)指令草案包括航空在歐盟ETS。歐盟環(huán)境委員會(huì)提出一些初步的指導(dǎo)原則是考慮其長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)意義,所以它是一個(gè)可行的模型,可以在世界范圍內(nèi)復(fù)制。例如,報(bào)道必須

47、清晰(選項(xiàng)包括國內(nèi)、歐洲各國,所有航班離開或降落在歐盟),交易實(shí)體應(yīng)該是航空公司和飛機(jī)運(yùn)營商,和分配方法應(yīng)在歐盟層面進(jìn)行協(xié)調(diào)。在第15章,建議拍賣碳排放量提高收入,加快調(diào)整碳市場(chǎng)。在一個(gè)航空ETS占完整的影響,某種形式的折扣可以被使用,類似于全球變暖的潛在因素可以用來將溫室氣體排放二氧化碳當(dāng)量排放。另外,結(jié)合排放交易和稅收可能會(huì)提供額外的收入。這可能提供強(qiáng)大創(chuàng)新動(dòng)力減少碳排放,行業(yè)主要包括機(jī)身、發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)制造、機(jī)場(chǎng)效率操作和空中交通管理。&

48、lt;/p><p><b>　　-6-</b></p><p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯</p><p>　　國際協(xié)調(diào)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),包括通過自愿的方法,也是一項(xiàng)重要的措施。現(xiàn)有的國際合作顧問委員會(huì)在歐洲航空研究(指標(biāo))需要2020年生產(chǎn)的新的飛機(jī)比2000年高出50%的燃油效率，相當(dāng)于他們的等價(jià)物。作為新型飛機(jī)的目標(biāo)是指于2020年生產(chǎn)長(zhǎng)壽命的飛機(jī)

49、,它需要提高燃油效率，來改善整個(gè)航空環(huán)境。指標(biāo)的目標(biāo)并提供某種程度的挑戰(zhàn)——為了滿足它,一些技術(shù)突破將必須達(dá)到。廣泛的目標(biāo)有望實(shí)現(xiàn)，指標(biāo)是歐盟的身體,但目標(biāo)可能產(chǎn)生重大影響,因?yàn)轱w機(jī)燃油效率國際制造商將想跟上燃料效率標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在美國,美國國家航空及太空總署(NASA)已經(jīng)建立類似的目標(biāo)。</p><p>　　補(bǔ)充措施,貿(mào)易和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)設(shè)置包括技術(shù)合作,分享最佳實(shí)踐在地面操作,實(shí)現(xiàn)減排的潛力,通過提高空中交通管理的改進(jìn)。&l

50、t;/p><p>　　擴(kuò)展覆蓋的碳定價(jià),國際航運(yùn)緩慢,很可能有增加的勢(shì)頭。</p><p>　　討論氣候變化影響的附加國際海事行業(yè)正處于一個(gè)非常早期的階段。國際海事組織(IMO)大會(huì)在2003年12月敦促其海上環(huán)境保護(hù)委員會(huì)來識(shí)別和發(fā)展機(jī)制,可以實(shí)現(xiàn)限制或減少溫室氣體排放的國際航運(yùn),并要求評(píng)估的技術(shù)、業(yè)務(wù)和市場(chǎng)解決方案限制海上運(yùn)輸?shù)臏厥覛怏w輸出。</p><p>　　英

51、國,政府領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下國內(nèi)海事和海岸警備局(MCA),一直在推動(dòng)國際海事組織考慮全面的技術(shù)、方法和市場(chǎng)化的選項(xiàng)控制海上運(yùn)輸產(chǎn)生的溫室氣體,特別是二氧化碳。談判正在討論其可行性，歐盟將這個(gè)行業(yè)進(jìn)入歐盟ETS不僅作為示范的嚴(yán)肅態(tài)度，而且也把有效性的排放交易作為一種控制措施。</p><p>　　22.8交互與國際貿(mào)易體制</p><p>　　國際貿(mào)易體制在主要經(jīng)濟(jì)體之間提供了一個(gè)路線來處理存在較大差異

52、的碳定價(jià)。</p><p>　　一些經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家分析可能使用國際貿(mào)易體制，來應(yīng)對(duì)在主要經(jīng)濟(jì)體之間所存在的顯著差異的碳排放價(jià)格。國家可以征收邊境稅的理論對(duì)進(jìn)口國家低碳價(jià)格,正確的價(jià)格下的碳在原產(chǎn)國。這可能克服碳泄漏或競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力問題通過減少激勵(lì)國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)將遷移到國外,可以增加激勵(lì)其他國家采取類似的措施來減少溫室氣體的排放。這里有一個(gè)清晰的邏輯。</p><p>　　有一個(gè)長(zhǎng)期存在的爭(zhēng)論:邊境稅調(diào)整以應(yīng)對(duì)

53、碳差價(jià)的法律根據(jù)是世界貿(mào)易組織(WTO)規(guī)則。自1980年代初以來,幾個(gè)病例被帶到貿(mào)易和關(guān)稅總協(xié)定(GATT)和世貿(mào)組織,對(duì)環(huán)境或人類健康相關(guān)措施。尤其是,1998年裁決的“蝦龜”可以用來表明,只要邊界調(diào)整或法規(guī)對(duì)溫室氣體強(qiáng)度的生產(chǎn)過程進(jìn)行的非歧視性的方式,它們可能是允許的。</p><p><b>　　-7-</b></p><p>　　濟(jì)南大學(xué)畢業(yè)論文外文資料翻譯

54、</p><p>　　如果出口商國家自愿把出口限制強(qiáng)加在雙邊或多邊協(xié)議，調(diào)整碳價(jià)格差異也可能發(fā)生。例如,廢除后全球配額制度,中國曾提出提高出口關(guān)稅和出口退稅降低利率來為歐盟和美國市場(chǎng)幫助管理進(jìn)口的紡織品。在這種安排,收入將被支付給中國政府,但歐盟和美國生產(chǎn)商將從高稅率中保護(hù)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。</p><p>　　盡管按貿(mào)易措施的邏輯,他們潛在的濫用可能造成嚴(yán)重后果的國際關(guān)系和破壞未來的合作。</

55、p><p>　　在第十二章我們已經(jīng)演示了競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力影響,構(gòu)成這些參數(shù)的調(diào)整不應(yīng)該夸大。這些結(jié)果也意味著,對(duì)于許多商品,因?yàn)樗麄兊某杀窘Y(jié)構(gòu),這種邊界的調(diào)整可能不會(huì)明顯改變國際貿(mào)易模式和趨勢(shì)。然而,邊境關(guān)稅或類似的措施,調(diào)整碳價(jià)格差異可能是不良的原因如下:</p><p>　　?貿(mào)易壁壘是低效的。消除貿(mào)易壁壘,允許國家在生產(chǎn)中發(fā)展比較優(yōu)勢(shì)。因此,即使有效,他們顯然是在全球經(jīng)濟(jì)中第二個(gè)最好的方式實(shí)現(xiàn)一個(gè)

56、類似的碳價(jià)格。</p><p>　　?會(huì)有技術(shù)挑戰(zhàn),是否設(shè)置邊界調(diào)整全國或多邊合作,作為當(dāng)前結(jié)構(gòu)的跨境征稅和補(bǔ)貼是極其復(fù)雜的。</p><p>　　?如果這些措施是有效的,他們可能在發(fā)展中國家的不利影響與高碳密集產(chǎn)品的出口依賴。在第23章中我們研究在發(fā)展中國家過渡到低碳經(jīng)濟(jì)。</p><p>　　?這些措施可能成為一個(gè)其他措施的借口,本質(zhì)上是保護(hù)主義和支持效率低下的

57、行業(yè)。危險(xiǎn)的實(shí)施非關(guān)稅壁壘,如植物檢疫標(biāo)準(zhǔn),可以用來拒絕入境,從發(fā)展中國家出口到發(fā)達(dá)國家。</p><p>　　?這樣的措施可能會(huì)使它更加難以為未來的國際合作建立必要的信任。</p><p>　　盡管如此,仍存在風(fēng)險(xiǎn),在面對(duì)巨大的和長(zhǎng)期的分化水平的碳定價(jià)跨越國界、行業(yè)將游說這些措施的實(shí)施。23章探討了如何消除貿(mào)易壁壘可以用來鼓勵(lì)緩解,特別是在發(fā)展中國家。</p><p&