質(zhì)量控制和安全施工外文翻譯

1、<p><b>　　中文3764字</b></p><p><b>　　本文獻(xiàn)來源于：</b></p><p>　　[1] 董祥. 土木工程英語. 2010（9）：145-151</p><p><b>　　質(zhì)量控制和安全施工</b></p><p>　　1在施工中存

2、在的質(zhì)量和安全問題</p><p>　　質(zhì)量控制和安全問題對(duì)項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理來說變得越來越重要。施工過程中的設(shè)備缺陷或故障可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致非常大的成本。即使有輕微缺陷, 也可能需要重新建設(shè)使設(shè)施運(yùn)營受損。導(dǎo)致成本的增加和延誤結(jié)果。在最壞的情況下，故障可能導(dǎo)致人身傷害甚至死亡。在施工過程中的事故可能導(dǎo)致人身傷害和巨大的花費(fèi)。保險(xiǎn)，檢驗(yàn)和監(jiān)管的間接成本迅速增加，會(huì)導(dǎo)致直接成本的增加。好的項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理應(yīng)盡量確保在第一時(shí)間完成任務(wù)，并且在

3、工程中沒有重大事故發(fā)生。</p><p>　　隨著成本的控制，關(guān)于已完成設(shè)施的質(zhì)量的最重要的決策是在設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃階段，而不是在施工階段。正是在該組件的配置，材料規(guī)格和功能性能這些初步階段而決定的。施工過程中的質(zhì)量控制主要是確保其是否符合原先的設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃決策。</p><p>　　雖然符合現(xiàn)有的設(shè)計(jì)決策是質(zhì)量控制的首要重點(diǎn)，但也有例外的情況。第一，不可預(yù)見的情況下，錯(cuò)誤的設(shè)計(jì)決策或希望通過在設(shè)

4、備功能的所有者權(quán)益變動(dòng)，可能在施工過程中要求對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)決策進(jìn)行重新評(píng)估。雖然這些變化可能是出于關(guān)心質(zhì)量，但他們意味著隨之而來的所有目標(biāo)和限制因素都要進(jìn)行重新設(shè)計(jì)。至于第二種情況，一些明智且適當(dāng)?shù)脑O(shè)計(jì)決策就是取決于施工過程本身，例如，一些隧道要求在不同的位置作出一定數(shù)量支護(hù)的方法，就是根據(jù)土壤條件，觀察在隧道里面的過程而做出的決策。由于這樣的決定是基于有關(guān)工地的實(shí)際情況，因此該設(shè)施的設(shè)計(jì)可能會(huì)更符合成本效益的結(jié)果。任何特殊的情況下，重新設(shè)計(jì)的

5、施工過程中都需要考慮各種因素。</p><p>　　在施工過程中以講究一致性作為質(zhì)量的衡量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，質(zhì)量要求的設(shè)計(jì)和合同文件中的說明將變得極為重要。質(zhì)量要求應(yīng)該是明確的、可驗(yàn)證的，能使項(xiàng)目中的各方都能夠理解的一致性要求。本章的大部分討論均涉及到發(fā)展和建設(shè)的不同質(zhì)量要求，以及確保符合性的相關(guān)問題。</p><p>　　建設(shè)項(xiàng)目中的安全性也在很大程度上影響到規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)過程中的決策。一些設(shè)計(jì)或施工計(jì)劃

6、本身就是又危險(xiǎn)又很難實(shí)現(xiàn)的，而其他類似的計(jì)劃，則可以大大降低事故發(fā)生的可能性。例如，從施工區(qū)域內(nèi)修復(fù)巷道使得交通分道行駛可以大大降低意外碰撞的可能性。除了這些設(shè)計(jì)決策，在施工過程中安全在很大程度上取決于教育，提高警惕，合作。工人應(yīng)對(duì)可能發(fā)生意外保持時(shí)刻警惕，避免不必要的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。</p><p><b>　　2組織的質(zhì)量和安全</b></p><p>　　在施工過程中，各

7、種不同的組織均可對(duì)質(zhì)量和安全進(jìn)行控制。一個(gè)常見的模式是由一個(gè)組負(fù)責(zé)質(zhì)量保證而另一個(gè)組則主要負(fù)責(zé)集團(tuán)內(nèi)的安全組織。在大型的組織中，各部門致力于確保質(zhì)量和安全，可能會(huì)指定專人來承擔(dān)這些具體項(xiàng)目的責(zé)任。對(duì)于較小的項(xiàng)目，項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理或助理可能會(huì)承擔(dān)相應(yīng)責(zé)任。在任一情況下，確保安全和質(zhì)量建設(shè)是項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理在除人事、成本、時(shí)間和其他管理問題以外必須重點(diǎn)關(guān)注并全面負(fù)責(zé)的。</p><p>　　檢查人員和質(zhì)量保證人員將代表各種不同的組織

8、共同參與一個(gè)項(xiàng)目。跟項(xiàng)目直接相關(guān)的各方都可能有自己的質(zhì)量和安全檢查，包括業(yè)主，工程師/設(shè)計(jì)師，和各種構(gòu)造公司。這些檢查員可以從專業(yè)的質(zhì)量保證機(jī)構(gòu)組織選擇擔(dān)任。除了現(xiàn)場檢查，材料樣品通常會(huì)由專門的實(shí)驗(yàn)室測試，以確保其權(quán)威性。為了保證符合監(jiān)管要求，相關(guān)部門也將參與其中。常見的例子是當(dāng)?shù)卣ㄔO(shè)部門的督察，環(huán)境機(jī)構(gòu)，和職業(yè)健康與安全機(jī)構(gòu)。</p><p>　　美國職業(yè)安全與健康管理局（OSHA）與獲批準(zhǔn)的國家檢驗(yàn)機(jī)構(gòu)合

9、作，定期對(duì)工作場所進(jìn)行實(shí)地考察。OSHA的檢查人員必須依法對(duì)所有違背標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的行為進(jìn)行采證。以保障安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)定的各種機(jī)械措施和程序; 例如，梯子的安全有超過140個(gè)法規(guī)。在極端不符合標(biāo)準(zhǔn)上面法規(guī)的情況下，安全檢查員可以停止在一個(gè)項(xiàng)目的工作。然而，只有一小部分的建筑工地是由OSHA督察巡視的，大多數(shù)施工現(xiàn)場的事故并非由違反現(xiàn)有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)造成的。因此，安全問題在很大程度上應(yīng)由現(xiàn)場管理人員而非公共督察負(fù)責(zé)。</p><p>　　

10、而施工過程中的眾多參與者都需要檢查人員的服務(wù)，也不能過于強(qiáng)調(diào)檢查人員只檢查質(zhì)量控制的過程。好的質(zhì)量控制應(yīng)該是一個(gè)項(xiàng)目團(tuán)隊(duì)所有成員的首要目標(biāo)。管理者應(yīng)承擔(dān)維護(hù)和提高質(zhì)量控制的責(zé)任。員工參與質(zhì)量控制包括引入了新的思路都應(yīng)該被獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。最重要的是，質(zhì)量改進(jìn)可以作為提高生產(chǎn)率的催化劑。良好的質(zhì)量控制可以通過提出新的工作方法，避免返工，并避免長期的問題，達(dá)到自給自足。業(yè)主應(yīng)促進(jìn)良好的質(zhì)量控制，并尋求能保持這樣的水準(zhǔn)的承包商。</p>&

11、lt;p>　　除了參與質(zhì)量控制的各種組織機(jī)構(gòu)，質(zhì)量控制問題在幾乎所有的建筑活動(dòng)功能區(qū)均出現(xiàn)過。例如，確保準(zhǔn)確和有用的信息是保持質(zhì)量性能的重要組成部分。質(zhì)量控制的其他方面包括文件控制（包括在施工過程中的變更），采購，現(xiàn)場檢查和測試，以及設(shè)施的竣工驗(yàn)收。</p><p><b>　　3工作和材料規(guī)范</b></p><p>　　工作質(zhì)量的規(guī)格是設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)重要特性

12、。要求的質(zhì)量和部件的規(guī)格代表了必要的文件來描述一個(gè)設(shè)備的一部分。通常情況下，這個(gè)文件包含了施工期間使用的設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)文件和公認(rèn)的規(guī)范的任何特殊規(guī)定，作為參考。</p><p>　　工作質(zhì)量一般規(guī)格在許多領(lǐng)域都是在如美國材料與試驗(yàn)協(xié)會(huì)（ASTM），美國國家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)協(xié)會(huì)（ANSI），或施工規(guī)范協(xié)會(huì)（CSI）等組織的刊物上發(fā)表。不同規(guī)格的形式為特定類型的建設(shè)活動(dòng)，如由美國焊接協(xié)會(huì)頒發(fā)的焊接標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，或特定設(shè)施的類型，如由美國協(xié)會(huì)的

13、國家公路和運(yùn)輸官員頒發(fā)的公路橋梁的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)范。這些一般規(guī)格必須進(jìn)行修改，以反映當(dāng)?shù)氐臈l件，政策，提供的材料，地方性法規(guī)及其他特殊情況。</p><p>　　施工規(guī)范通常由一系列的具體操作指令或禁令組成。例如，下面的文章說明了一個(gè)典型的對(duì)在這種情況下的挖掘結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)范：</p><p>　　符合標(biāo)高和尺寸正負(fù)0.10英尺的容差范圍內(nèi)的計(jì)劃顯示，從地基和基礎(chǔ)延伸足夠的距離，允許放置及拆除混凝土模板

14、，安裝服務(wù)，其他建筑，并進(jìn)行檢查。在挖掘挖掘地基和基礎(chǔ)時(shí)，當(dāng)心別影響基坑開挖。用手挖掘并最終分級(jí)來填置鋼筋混凝土。調(diào)整（挖掘的）最底層到需要的路線和坡度，留下堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)去填充堅(jiān)實(shí)（的混凝土）。</p><p>　　這一組規(guī)范要求應(yīng)用判斷，是由于有些項(xiàng)目不能精確地指定。例如，開挖必須延長“足夠”的距離，以便進(jìn)行檢查和其他活動(dòng)。顯然，“足夠”這個(gè)詞，在這種情況下，可能會(huì)受到不同的解釋。相反，一個(gè)規(guī)范，公差內(nèi)加或減十分

15、之一英尺則是直接測量。然而，由于網(wǎng)站的設(shè)施或特征的具體要求， 可能會(huì)使得十分之一英尺的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)公差變得不合適。書寫規(guī)范通常需要在假設(shè)有關(guān)各方在諸如“充足”與預(yù)指定所有操作的努力和可能的解釋不準(zhǔn)確的話雙方的部分合理的行為之間的權(quán)衡。</p><p>　　近年來，性能規(guī)格已經(jīng)被開發(fā)運(yùn)用于許多施工作業(yè)。這些規(guī)范是指所要求的性能的成品設(shè)施或質(zhì)量，而不是指定所需的施工過程中的規(guī)范。而如何從其中獲得此性能的具體方法則是留給建筑承

16、包商的。例如，傳統(tǒng)規(guī)格為瀝青路面中指定的瀝青材料，瀝青組合物的攤鋪溫度，壓實(shí)過程。相反，一個(gè)性能規(guī)格瀝青所需的詳細(xì)性能是關(guān)于路面的抗?jié)B性及強(qiáng)度等。如何達(dá)到所期望的性能水平則要依靠鋪路承包商。</p><p><b>　　質(zhì)量控制（Ⅰ）</b></p><p><b>　　1全面的質(zhì)量控制</b></p><p>　　在施工

17、質(zhì)量控制一般包括投保符合材料和工藝上最低準(zhǔn)則，以便根據(jù)設(shè)計(jì)，以確保設(shè)備的性能。這些最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)都包含在上一節(jié)中描述的規(guī)范。對(duì)于符合保險(xiǎn)的目的，隨機(jī)抽樣和統(tǒng)計(jì)方法通常用于為基礎(chǔ)，接受或拒絕工作完成，材料批次。一批拒絕是基于不符合或違反有關(guān)設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范。這種質(zhì)量控制的實(shí)踐過程在下面的章節(jié)中描述。</p><p>　　在這些傳統(tǒng)的質(zhì)量控制方法的一個(gè)隱含的假設(shè)是可以接受的質(zhì)量水平，這是不良品的允許分?jǐn)?shù)的概念。由一個(gè)組織進(jìn)行供應(yīng)商

18、或工作組獲得的材料進(jìn)行檢查，如果估計(jì)有缺陷，但是所占百分比是在可接受的質(zhì)量水平，讓供應(yīng)商和工作組來判斷判斷是否通過驗(yàn)收。如果是材料或貨物的問題則是在產(chǎn)品交付后校正。</p><p>　　與此相反，質(zhì)量控制這種傳統(tǒng)的方法是全面質(zhì)量管理的目標(biāo)。在這個(gè)系統(tǒng)中，施工過程中的任何地方都不允許有次品。而完美的目標(biāo)卻是永遠(yuǎn)無法達(dá)到的，它提供了一個(gè)目標(biāo)，讓組織永遠(yuǎn)不會(huì)滿足于它的質(zhì)量控制程序，使得缺陷在年復(fù)一年的大量減少。這個(gè)概念

19、和質(zhì)量控制的方法最初是開發(fā)制造在日本和歐洲的公司，但已蔓延到許多建筑公司。最有名的質(zhì)量改進(jìn)的正式認(rèn)證是國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化組織ISO 9000標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。ISO 9000強(qiáng)調(diào)良好的文檔，質(zhì)量目標(biāo)和一系列的周期規(guī)劃，實(shí)施和審查。</p><p>　　全面質(zhì)量管理是一個(gè)對(duì)質(zhì)量的承諾，表現(xiàn)在組織的各個(gè)部分，通常涉及許多元素。設(shè)計(jì)審查是確保安全和有效的施工程序的一個(gè)主要元素。其他因素包括大量的人員培訓(xùn)，轉(zhuǎn)移檢測產(chǎn)品缺陷的質(zhì)量控

20、制員的責(zé)任，并不斷維護(hù)設(shè)備。在質(zhì)量圈中的工人小組定期開會(huì)，提出質(zhì)量改進(jìn)的建議，但工人參與改進(jìn)質(zhì)量控制往往是形式化的。材料供應(yīng)商也需要確保交付貨物的零缺陷。首先，從供應(yīng)商的所有材料進(jìn)行檢查，有缺陷的商品被分批次退回。能證明自己信譽(yù)優(yōu)良的供應(yīng)商，則可以在之后完成檢查。</p><p>　　質(zhì)量控制的傳統(tǒng)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)是有缺陷的項(xiàng)目的“最優(yōu)”的比例。努力實(shí)現(xiàn)比這更大的最佳的質(zhì)量會(huì)大幅增加檢驗(yàn)成本，降低員工的工作效率。

21、然而，許多公司都發(fā)現(xiàn)，致力于全面質(zhì)量控制可以產(chǎn)生可觀的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益，這是一個(gè)曾經(jīng)一直不受重視的傳統(tǒng)方法。全面質(zhì)量控制使得返工，廢鋼和保證與庫存相關(guān)費(fèi)用均減少，并且改善工作人員的積極性和工作決心?？蛻敉矚g更高質(zhì)量的作品，并會(huì)為其高質(zhì)量支付高價(jià)。其結(jié)果是，完善的質(zhì)量控制成為了一個(gè)競爭優(yōu)勢。</p><p>　　當(dāng)然，全面的質(zhì)量控制是很難應(yīng)用的，尤其是在建設(shè)中。各設(shè)施的獨(dú)特性，勞動(dòng)力的變化性，眾多分包商，教育和程序進(jìn)行

22、必要的成本投資，使項(xiàng)目全面質(zhì)量控制的實(shí)施難度大。然而，一個(gè)組織雖不能保證達(dá)到完美的目標(biāo)但卻一直致力于提高質(zhì)量，那么它可以是一個(gè)真正為大家造福的組織。</p><p><b>　　附外文原文：</b></p><p>　　Quality Control and Safety during Construction</p><p>　　1 Qual

23、ity and Safety Concerns in Construction</p><p>　　Quality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very la

24、rge costs. Even with minor defects，re-construction may be required and facility operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accid

25、ents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insuranc</p><p>　　As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of

26、 a completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component configurations, material specifications and functional performanc

27、e are decided. Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to these original designs and planning decisions.</p><p>　　While conformance to existing design decisions is the pr

28、imary focus of quality control, there are exceptions to this rule. First, unforeseen circumstances, incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function may require re-evaluation of design d

29、ecisions during the course of construction. While these changes may be motivated by the concern for quality, they represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and constraints. As a second case, som

30、e de</p><p>　　With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and contract documentation becomes extremely

31、 important. Quality requirements should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can understand the requirements for conformance. Much of the discussion in this chapter relates to the development and t

32、he implications of different quality requirements for construction as well as the issue</p><p>　　Safety during the construction project is also influenced in large part by decisions made during the planning

33、and design process. Some designs or construction plans are inherently difficult and dangerous to implement, whereas other, comparable plans may considerably reduce the possibility of accidents. For example, clear separat

34、ion of traffic from construction zones during roadway rehabilitation can greatly reduce the possibility of accidental collisions. Beyond these design decisions, safety la</p><p>　　2 Organizing for Quality an

35、d Safety</p><p>　　A variety of different organizations are possible for quality and safety control during construction. One common model is to have a group responsible for quality assurance and another group

36、 primarily responsible for safety within an organization. In large organizations, department dedicated to quality assurance and to safety might assign specific individuals to assume responsibility for these functions on

37、particular projects. For smaller projects, the project manager or an assistant might assume</p><p>　　Inspectors and quality assurance personnel will be involved in a project to represent a variety of differe

38、nt organizations. Each of the parties directly concerned with the project may have their own quality and safety inspectors, including the owner, the engineer/architect, and the various constructor firms. These inspectors

39、 may be contractors from specialized quality assurance organizations. In addition to on-site inspections, samples of materials will commonly be tested by specialized laborato</p><p>　　The US Occupational Saf

40、ety and Health Administration (OSHA) routinely conduct site visits of work places in conjunction with approved state inspection agencies. OSHA inspectors are required by law to issue citations for all standard violations

41、 observed. Safety standards prescribe a variety of mechanical safeguards and procedures; for example, ladder safety is covered by over 140 regulations. In cases of extreme non-compliance with standards, OSHA inspectors c

42、an stop work on a project. However, o</p><p>　　While the multitude of participants involved in the construction process require the services of inspectors, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that inspector

43、s are only a formal check on quality control. Quality control should be a primary objective for all the members of a project team. Managers should take responsibility for maintaining and improving quality control. Employ

44、ee participation in quality control should be sought and rewarded, including the introduction of new ideas. Most importa</p><p>　　In addition to the various organizational bodies involved in quality control,

45、 issues of quality control arise in virtually all the functional areas of construction activities. For example, insuring accurate and useful information is an important part of maintaining quality performance. Other aspe

46、cts of quality control include document control (including changes during the construction process), procurement, field inspection and testing, and final checkout of the facility.</p><p>　　3 Work and Materia

47、l Specifications</p><p>　　Specifications of work quality are an important feature of facility designs. Specifications of required quality and components represent part of the necessary documentation to descr

48、ibe a facility. Typically, this documentation includes any special provisions of the facility design as well as references to generally accepted specifications to be used during construction.</p><p>　　Genera

49、l specifications of work quality are available in numerous fields and are issued in publications of organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American National Standards Institute (

50、ANSI), or the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI).Distinct specifications are formalized for particular types of construction activities, such as welding standards issued by the American Welding Society, or for p

51、articular facility types, such as the Standard Specifi</p><p>　　Construction specifications normally consist of a series of instructions or prohibitions for specific operations. For example, the following pa

52、ssage illustrates a typical specification, in this case for excavation for structures:</p><p>　　Conform to elevations and dimensions shown on plan within a tolerance of plus or minus 0.10 foot, and extending

53、 a sufficient distance from footings and foundations to permit placing and removal of concrete formwork, installation of services, other construction, and for inspection. In excavating for footings and foundations, take

54、care not to disturb bottom of excavation. Excavate by hand to final grade just before concrete reinforcement is placed. Trim bottoms to required lines and grades to leav</p><p>　　This set of specifications r

55、equires judgment in application since some items are not precisely specified. For example, excavation must extend a "sufficient" distance to permit inspection and other activities. Obviously, the term "suf

56、ficient" in this case may be subject to varying interpretations. In contrast, a specification that tolerances are within plus or minus a tenth of a foot is subject to direct measurement. However, specific requiremen

57、ts of the facility or characteristics of the site ma</p><p>　　In recent years, performance specifications have been developed for many construction operations. Rather than specifying the required constructio

58、n process, these specifications refer to the required performance or quality of the finished facility. The exact method by which this performance is obtained is left to the construction contractor. For example, tradition

59、al specifications for asphalt pavement specified the composition of the asphalt material, the asphalt temperature during paving, and co</p><p>　　Quality Control (Ⅰ)</p><p>　　1 Total Quality Cont

60、rol</p><p>　　Quality control in construction typically involves insuring compliance with minimum standards of material and workmanship in order to insure the performance of the facility according to the desi

61、gn. These minimum standards are contained in the specifications described in the previous section. For the purpose of insuring compliance, random samples and statistical methods are commonly used as the basis for accepti

62、ng or rejecting work completed and batches of materials. Rejection of a batch is based</p><p>　　An implicit assumption in these traditional quality control practices is the notion of an acceptable quality le

63、vel which is an allowable fraction of defective items. Materials obtained from suppliers or work performed by an organization is inspected and passed as acceptable if the estimated defective percentage is within the acce

64、ptable quality level. Problems with materials or goods are corrected after delivery of the product.</p><p>　　In contrast to this traditional approach of quality control is the goal of total quality control.

65、In this system, no defective items are allowed anywhere in the construction process. While the zero defects goal can never be permanently obtained, it provides a goal so that an organization is never satisfied with its q

66、uality control program even if defects are reduced by substantial amounts year after year. This concept and approach to quality control was first developed in manufacturing firms in </p><p>　　Total quality c

67、ontrol is a commitment to quality expressed in all parts of an organization and typically involves many elements. Design reviews to insure safe and effective construction procedures are a major element. Other elements in

68、clude extensive training for personnel, shifting the responsibility for detecting defects from quality control inspectors to workers, and continually maintaining equipment. Worker involvement in improved quality control

69、is often formalized in quality circles in whi</p><p>　　The traditional microeconomic view of quality control is that there are an "optimum" proportion of defective items. Trying to achieve greater

70、quality than this optimum would substantially increase costs of inspection and reduce worker productivity. However, many companies have found that commitment to total quality control has substantial economic benefits tha

71、t had been unappreciated in traditional approaches. Expenses associated with inventory, rework, scrap and warranties were reduced. Worker </p><p>　　Of course, total quality control is difficult to apply, par

72、ticular in construction. The unique nature of each facility, the variability in the workforce, the multitude of subcontractors and the cost of making necessary investments in education and procedures make programs of tot