外文翻譯--尼羅河體系的水質(zhì)評價綜述

1、<p><b>　　中文3790字</b></p><p><b>　　附錄(外文翻譯)</b></p><p>　　BIOMEDICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL 17,87-100(2004)</p><p>　　Water Quality Assessment of the River Nile

2、 System: An Overview</p><p>　　RIFAAT A. WAHAAB AND MOHAMED I. BADAWY</p><p>　　National Research Center, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt</p><p>　　Objectives： The main objective of the present

3、article is to assess and evaluate the characteristis of the Nile water system，and identify the major sources of pollution and its environmental and health consequences. The article is also aimed to highlight the importan

4、ce of water management via re-use and recycle of treated effluents for industrial purpose and for cultivation of desert land. Method An intensive effort was made by the authors to collect, assess and compile the availab

5、le data about</p><p>　　Key words: Water quality; River Nile; Lakes; Pollution sources; Assessment</p><p>　　INTRODUCTION</p><p>　　The availability of water of acceptable quality in E

6、gypt is limited and getting even more restricted, while at the same time, the needs for water increase as a result of population growth, industrial development and cultivation of desert land. The country depends for more

7、 than 90 percent of its water supply on the River Nile. Groundwater resources are limited and the direct contribution of rainfall, except for the Mediterranean coastal area, is neglected. Irrigated agriculture is by far

8、the larg</p><p>　　Water Resources</p><p>　　The River Nile forms the main water resource of Egypt. Through the 1959 Nile Water Agreement with Sudan and the completion of the High Aswan Dam in 196

9、8, a stable 55.5 billion m3/yr. was allocated to Egypt. The actual release from the High Aswan Dam shows very little yearly variation. Annual variation of the release of water from the High Aswan Dam depends mainly on ir

10、rigation needs. The release from the high Aswan Dam ranges from approximately 800 m3/s during the (winter) closure period to appr</p><p>　　seepage from irrigated agriculture. Rainfallsplays a minor role in E

11、gypt's water resources, with average rainfall rates declining from 200 million m3/yr. at the Mediterranean Coast to 20 mm .in Cairo and almost zero in Upper Egypt.</p><p>　　Water Consumption</p>&

12、lt;p>　　In the 1993/94 hydrological season, gross water consumption of irrigated agriculture amounted to approximately 54.5 B. (billion) m3/yr. (of which almost 30 B. m3/yr. occurred in the Delta). Other water users, s

13、uch as municipal and domestic drinking water s industry and others consumed approximately 8.8 B，and an estimated 2.0 B. about 14.0 B. was lost through evaporation anddischarged to the Mediterranean Sea (Table 1). In rec

14、ent years, theamount discharged to the Mediterranean Sea directly from</p><p>　　population and industrial activity, through options such as increased efficiency of irrigation and/or changes in crop types, an

15、d reducing areas under irrigation.</p><p>　　The current water use from the Nile River and projections to year 2000 shows a rapid increase in demand, which isprojected to be met by using water from the drains

16、 and reducing the flow from drainsto the sea. This poses serious issues since the water in the drains is currently of poor quality due to pollution from industrial, municipal and agricultural sources.</p><p>

17、;　　Industrial Pollution</p><p>　　Deterioration of its surface and groundwater due to Egypt faces a rapidly increasing and industrial effluents into its discharges of heavily polluted domestic</p><

18、p>　　in agriculture also causes water waterways. Excessiveuse of pesticides and fertilizers pollution problems.</p><p>　　Egyptian industryuses 638 M. m3/yr. of water, of which 549 M. m3/yr. is discharged t

19、o activities in the Greater Cairo and Alexandria regions use the drainage system. Industrial 40% of the total. The River Nilesupplies 65% of the industrial water needs and receives more than 57% of its effluents.More det

20、ailed information about water consumption, sourcesof pollution and loads from different industrial wastewater discharge and point sectors are provided.</p><p>　　The area has a population of approximately a m

21、illion and encompasses many industrial and commercial activities. Heavy industry is located around South of Cairo, and, North of Cairo. Many small industries and some heavy industry are randomly located throughout the ci

22、ty. Although wastewater discharges of the small industries are generally low, concentrations of certain industries in specific areas, such as the tanning overview cause local contamination problems. Anof pollution source

23、s is include 2</p><p>　　Alexandria is a major industrial center with some 175 industries, about 25 percent of the total in Egypt. These industries include paper, metal, chemical, textile, plastic, pharmaceut

24、ical, oil and soap, and food processing. These plants are reported to contribute some 20 percent of the total wastewater of Alexandria. The industries discharge theireffluents mainly to Lake Mariut and pardsewerage netwo

25、rk. According to a survey made by Drainage Research Intypes of industrial</p><p>　　lirectly to the lake wastes are disposed to Lake Maryut. At least 17 factories through pipelines; 4 factories collect their

26、wastewater in I lying in the vicinity of the treatment plants; 22 factories discharging to nearby drains and then to the lake.</p><p>　　It is worth mentioning that the totalamount of BOD discharged to the Ri

27、ver Nile by industrial plants equals 270 ton/day. Thisamount corresponds to the untreated discharge of wastewater from more than six million people. It can be concluded that these substances are discharged mainly from th

28、e industrial activities in the Greater Cairo region and in Delta (0.75 and 0.50 ton/day). The average concentration of heavy metals (HM) in the effluentis less than 5 pg/L, which is slightlymore than a normal </p>

29、<p>　　Domestic Pollution</p><p>　　The way domestic pollution affects water quality heavily depends on the way of</p><p>　　disposal of this pollution. Approximately 65 percent of Egypt'

30、s population is connected to drinking water supply and only 24 percent to sewerage services, although the latter percentage is expected to grow rapidly, due to works under construction. The population not connected to se

31、werage systems relies on individual means of excreta and wastewater disposal such as latrines and septic tanks. According to ananalysis of the different references (World Bank, 1993), in Upper 8 wastewater treatment f&l

32、t;/p><p>　　Agricultural Pollution</p><p>　　Agricultural is the major non-point sourcepollution, with a number of potential impacts on the environmental and human health. In many agricultural areas,

33、 local surfaceand groundwater contamination has resulted from leaching of nitrates from fertilizers and bacteria from livestock and feed wastes. Agricultural pesticides are both a potential diffuse source of water contam

34、ination.</p><p>　　Since the construction of the High Aswan Dam, the water quality of the Nile became primarily dependent on the quality and ecosystem characteristics of the Lake Nasser reservoir and less dir

35、ectly dependent on the water quality of the upper reaches of the Nile. Water released from the Lake Nasser generally exhibits the same seasonal variation and the same overall characteristics from one year to another. Dow

36、nstream changes in river water quality areprimarily due to (i) the hydrodynamic regime of t</p><p>　　ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT</p><p>　　As a result of poor wastewater treatment, high concentrations o

37、f coliform bacteria are found in the Nile and its branches downstream of Cairo. Values of 1 to 10 million (Most Probable Number) MPN/100 ml, have been measured in the Rosetta branch. This is far above the standard of fiv

38、e thousand MPN/100 ml, as given in Law 48 of 1982. Since exposure to pathogenic bacteria can cause serious health problems, adequate treatment of sewage should be given high priority.</p><p>　　High concentra

39、tions of pesticides are found in the Nile and Rosetta Branch. For</p><p>　　example, the reported concentration for linadane (y-HCH) and DDT are 5 to 10 times above European standards. As agricultural activit

40、ies are the principal source, it is expected that concentrations in agricultural drain are even higher. The risk of pesticides relates to drinking water supply without proper treatment (by means of active carbon) and the

41、 accumulation in fish products. The problem asks for a sound baseline study, including a review of pesticide use, import and production and measured</p><p>　　be necessary m case unacceptable concentrations a

42、re found in drinking water.</p><p>　　Although various studies and monitoring efforts have been carried out, information on water quality status, its causes and effects shows many gaps. To enable the formulat

43、ion of effective measures to prevent further pollution of the vital water resources and to restore polluted areas, more detailed information is required for pollution sources, the transport and behavior of pollutants in

44、the water system, the assimilative (self-purification) capacity of the water system, and the impacts of pollut</p><p>　　approach, to analyze the impact of individual pollution sources on ambient water qualit

45、y, to evaluate the efficiency of proposed actions. The design of the monitoring system could be as follows: (i) early warning system (EWS): an early warning system is recommended. The sensor system will receive and send

46、information to a central processing unit. There can be on-line measurement equipment, the general public observing calamities, the police officially involved in all kind of accidents and the ev</p><p>　　Nile

47、，the important drinking and irrigation water intake points, together with the sources of pollution along the river are recommended to be monitored according to their km locations. In order to enable some early predicatio

48、n of water quality at the release from the High Aswan Dam, monitoring sites must be planned at a various locations in the Lake Nasser. For Nile branches and the irrigation canals, a similar design procedure are to be fol

49、lowed; (iii) selection of parameters: to obtain a good o</p><p>　　measured monthly in some locations.</p><p>　　Pollution control in large scale-The Egyptian Environment:Affairs Agency (EEAA) has

50、 identified 41 industrial enterprises in the public sector, whichurgently need to reduce their discharge of untreated wastewater. Feasibility studies were carried out (financed by USAID five years ago), and implementatio

51、n of recommended solutions could begin immediately after review of the studies. The action also aims to introduce (a) a datahase system to identify all effluents from large-scale industries ;and (b</p><p>　　

52、生物醫(yī)學(xué)與環(huán)境科學(xué) 17，87－100（2004）</p><p>　　尼羅河體系的水質(zhì)評價：綜述</p><p>　　拉夫特A·瓦哈博 穆罕默德I·巴達維</p><p>　　埃及·開羅·Dokki研究中心</p><p>　　題目：目前許多課題的主要目標(biāo)是對尼羅河水系進行評估，并且鑒定其主要污

53、染物質(zhì)以及其對環(huán)境和人類健康造成的危害，這些課題還注重之處水處理和水的再生回用的重要性，可以將其回用給工業(yè)用水或者沙漠地帶的灌溉用水。</p><p>　　方法：作者做出很大的努力收集和編纂有關(guān)尼羅河的有用的數(shù)據(jù)，物理化學(xué)分析被用來檢驗收集數(shù)據(jù)的有效性，其中氣相色譜和高性能液體色譜法均被采用，重金屬也也被調(diào)查看是尼羅河受到工業(yè)廢水的污染。</p><p>　　成果：這些有用的數(shù)據(jù)證實河體接

54、納了大量的工業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)和居民生活污水，值得一提的是，除了一小部分以外，大部分區(qū)域水體還能夠自然的恢復(fù)到原來的狀態(tài)，這主要是由于很高的稀釋率，這些收集到的數(shù)據(jù)證實了高濃度的鉻和錳，水中監(jiān)測到有殺蟲劑中的氧氯化合物，盡管如此，這些沉淀物的含量還是比WHO規(guī)定的飲用水最大的含量要低，污染最嚴(yán)重的湖泊是Maryut湖和Manzala湖，地下水污染經(jīng)常是和地表水的污染有密切關(guān)系的，高濃度的氮、硫＝重金屬等等，已經(jīng)在地下水中被監(jiān)測到，其含量大大超過了

55、WHO所要求的飲用水最高要求。</p><p>　　結(jié)論：尼羅河水系急需一個有秩序的、連續(xù)的管理機制，環(huán)境法律將嚴(yán)格禁止工業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)和生活廢水排入尼羅河。</p><p>　　關(guān)鍵詞：水質(zhì)，尼羅河，湖泊，污染源，評估</p><p><b>　　簡 介</b></p><p>　　在埃及水質(zhì)可以被接受的水的利用是

56、有限的，甚至是受限的，而與此同時，伴隨著人口增長，工業(yè)發(fā)展和土地沙漠化，水的需求量有增無減，埃及90％的水供應(yīng)來源于尼羅河，除了地中海沿線區(qū)域，地下水是很有限的并且是降雨的主要來源，這一點被忽略，灌溉用水占總用水量的90％，盡管灌溉和農(nóng)業(yè)技術(shù)節(jié)約了大量的水，但是植物生長和農(nóng)業(yè)區(qū)的擴張都需要大量的水，工業(yè)發(fā)展和人類消耗對有限的水資源的平均分布造成了嚴(yán)重的威脅。</p><p><b>　　水源 ：<

57、/b></p><p>　　尼羅河是埃及主要的水源，通過1959年和蘇丹大城的關(guān)于尼羅河的協(xié)定，還有1968年阿斯旺大壩的建成，每年都要55.5億立方米的水被分配給埃及，每年的阿斯旺大壩的放水，取決于農(nóng)業(yè)灌溉的需要，阿斯旺大壩冬季的放水量大約是800立方米每秒，夏季的放水量為2760立方米每秒，在尼羅河流域和尼羅河三角洲，地下水資源的利用可達每年44億立方米，主要用于農(nóng)業(yè)灌溉，降雨調(diào)節(jié)著埃及的水資源分配，地

58、中海沿岸的降雨量平均是每年2億立方米，而開羅和埃及其他地區(qū)降水量幾乎為零。</p><p><b>　　耗水量：</b></p><p>　　在1993/94年度的豐水季節(jié)，農(nóng)業(yè)灌溉用水的總耗水量大約為545億立方米，而像市政和居民生活用水，工業(yè)和其他消耗用水大約占88億立方米，每年都有20億立方米的水蒸發(fā)流失，還有大約140億立方米的水流進地中海，近年來，流進地中海

59、的水量急劇下降。</p><p>　　當(dāng)前，阿斯旺大壩的放水量保持在529～574億立方米，伴隨著需求量的增加，埃及將不得不依靠地下水和昂貴的海水淡化，因此，現(xiàn)有的水資源必須被嚴(yán)格的管理以保證人口和工業(yè)需求，這些可以通過提高灌溉用水的利用率以及縮減灌溉區(qū)域。</p><p>　　目前關(guān)于尼羅河的水資源的利用預(yù)示著需求量的快速增長，這就要求必須使用地下水和盡量減少流入大海額水量，既然當(dāng)前水質(zhì)

60、受到工業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)和市政用水的嚴(yán)重污染，這就形成了嚴(yán)重的問題。</p><p><b>　　工業(yè)污染：</b></p><p>　　由于污染嚴(yán)重的生活和工業(yè)污水流入水體，埃及面臨著地表水和地下水的惡化，殺蟲劑和化肥的大量使用都將造成嚴(yán)重的水體污染，</p><p>　　埃及的工業(yè)生產(chǎn)每年使用6.38億立方米的水，其中5.49億用于排泄系統(tǒng)，在開羅和

61、亞力山大地區(qū)的工業(yè)活動用水量占總的40％，尼羅河供應(yīng)工業(yè)用水的65％，接納多于57％的水量。</p><p>　　開羅地區(qū)大約有1500萬人，從事著許多工業(yè)和商業(yè)活動，重工業(yè)坐落在開羅南部，或者北部，許多小工業(yè)和一些重工業(yè)零散地分布在城市中，盡管小工業(yè)產(chǎn)生的廢水量很低，但是都集中在一些特殊工業(yè)領(lǐng)域，這些污染源包括23個化工工業(yè)，27個紡織和針紡工業(yè)，7個鋼鐵工業(yè)，32個食品加工工業(yè)，29個機械生產(chǎn)工業(yè)，和9個礦產(chǎn)

62、業(yè)。</p><p>　　亞力山大地區(qū)是主要的工業(yè)中心，它有175種工業(yè)，大約占埃及總量的25％，這些工業(yè)包括造紙，鋼鐵，化工，紡織，塑料，制藥，適于，食品加工，這些工廠制造了亞力山大地區(qū)20％的污水量，這些工業(yè)將污水排入Mariut湖，一部分排入市政污水管道，通過Drainage研究所的一項調(diào)查，不同的工業(yè)廢水被排入Maryut湖，至少17個工廠通過排水管道直接排入河體，4個工廠收集她們的污水，19個工廠設(shè)有污

63、水處理設(shè)施，22個工廠把水處理后排入湖泊。</p><p>　　值得一提的是工業(yè)企業(yè)排入尼羅河的BOD的量相當(dāng)于每天270噸，這個量相當(dāng)于600萬人口的廢水未經(jīng)處理直接排放，于是我們得出結(jié)論，這些污染物質(zhì)主要來源于開羅和亞力山大地區(qū)的工業(yè)活動，重金屬的含量為5毫克每升。</p><p><b>　　生活污水污染：</b></p><p>　　生

64、活污水的污染作用于水質(zhì)主要決定于這些污染物的排放途徑，大約65％的埃及人口與飲用水的供應(yīng)有直接關(guān)系，但是只有24％的水經(jīng)過處理，盡管后者增長迅速，那些不參與水處理的人口依靠自身的方法將污水進行處理。</p><p>　　經(jīng)過世界銀行的分析，在埃及北部，8個污水處理廠承擔(dān)著大約120000噸每天的污水處理量，在開羅地區(qū)，共有5座污水處理廠，處理能力在每天1850000噸，在delte，總共有30個污水處理廠處理能力

65、為400000噸每天，并且有一些每天處理量為100000噸的處理廠正在建設(shè)。</p><p><b>　　農(nóng)業(yè)污染：</b></p><p>　　農(nóng)業(yè)是主要的不定點污染源，對環(huán)境和人類健康都有潛在的威脅，在許多農(nóng)業(yè)地區(qū)，當(dāng)?shù)氐牡乇硭偷叵滤廴局饕怯捎诨手械倪^量排放，農(nóng)藥也是一個潛在的水污染源。據(jù)估計，在埃及北部，大約4十億的污水返流回尼羅河，這些污水含有大量的

66、污染物，幸運的是，尼羅河大的稀釋率將污染物保持在可以接受的濃度范圍內(nèi)。</p><p>　　自從阿斯旺大壩建成之后，尼羅河的水質(zhì)主要取決于Nasser湖儲水機制，不太直接依賴于尼羅河上游的水質(zhì)，從Nasser流出的水呈現(xiàn)出相同的季節(jié)變化，具有年復(fù)一年的相同的特性。埃及國家水質(zhì)研究中心尼羅河研究所正致力于尼羅河以及分支的水質(zhì)監(jiān)管工作，所有的污染參數(shù)將根據(jù)美國水質(zhì)監(jiān)測標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進行測量，據(jù)報道，由于有機物和非有機物的排入，

67、尼羅河將其大大稀釋和降解，尼羅河中的微生物狀況良好，除了阿斯旺大壩下游40公里內(nèi)的水域，其他水域的水中溶解氧含量均接近飽和，均在每升3.1至9.5毫克之間，大量的污染物，比如總氮、總磷、BOD均保持在最大容量以內(nèi)。</p><p>　　在埃及北部地區(qū)共有4個主要湖泊，他們直接屬地中海流域，這些湖泊被分裂成狹長地帶，并且都不組2米深，它們盛產(chǎn)魚類，并且Maryut湖曾經(jīng)被用于水上飛機的一個著陸點，不幸的是，這些湖泊

68、已經(jīng)嚴(yán)重變質(zhì)，原因是在過去的20年，大量的污水排入其中，三種廢水導(dǎo)致這些污染，生活污水、未經(jīng)處理的工業(yè)廢水和農(nóng)業(yè)水，生活污水直接排入大海，工業(yè)廢水由于新工業(yè)的增加，其量大大增加，而農(nóng)業(yè)廢水伴隨著阿斯旺大壩的建成也急劇增加，原因是農(nóng)業(yè)用地被用于更多的農(nóng)作物生產(chǎn)。</p><p>　　污染最嚴(yán)重的湖泊是Maryut湖和Manzala湖，Maryut湖接納農(nóng)業(yè)廢水和生活工業(yè)廢水，許多工廠將其污水直接排入湖泊，導(dǎo)致BOD

69、等污染物的濃度很高，魚類生產(chǎn)也幾經(jīng)由60年代的每年7000噸下降到現(xiàn)在的每年不足100噸，這是一個警告，漁民不得不離開原來的居住地，或者轉(zhuǎn)向其他的工作，比如便宜的農(nóng)業(yè)勞動力或者撿垃圾。</p><p><b>　　環(huán)境影響</b></p><p>　　由于不良的廢水處理，在尼羅河和它的分支中發(fā)現(xiàn)高濃度的細(xì)菌，每100毫升100萬到1000萬MPN已經(jīng)被檢測出來，這遠遠

70、大于每100毫升5000MPN的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，這個標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是1982年法規(guī)的第48條規(guī)定的，既然大量的細(xì)菌會導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的健康問題，充分的處理就應(yīng)該得到高度的重視。</p><p>　　高濃度的農(nóng)藥被排入尼羅河和Rodetta分支，例如，據(jù)報道的DDT含量是歐洲標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的5～倍，由于農(nóng)業(yè)活動是農(nóng)藥的主要來源，所以估計農(nóng)業(yè)廢水中的濃度會更高，農(nóng)業(yè)廢水未經(jīng)處理排河，在魚類體內(nèi)富集，這與飲用水安全有很大的關(guān)系。</p>&l

71、t;p>　　這個問題要求進行最基本的研究，包括農(nóng)藥使用、進口、生產(chǎn)和在不同水體進行測量，短期之內(nèi)，這些研究是有必要的。</p><p>　　據(jù)報道在Rosetta分支中發(fā)現(xiàn)高濃度的金屬含量，亞力山大地區(qū)和Manzala湖泊也有，Rosetta分支中的測量表明，鎘銅鋅是高于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的，埃及關(guān)于銅和鋅的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是每升中1000毫克，而歐洲的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中銅為50毫克每升，鋅為150毫克每升，在亞力山大地區(qū)還發(fā)現(xiàn)有高濃度的汞含量

72、，在Manzala湖的底部沉淀物中含有大量的富集金屬，這對湖泊中魚類的影響尚未證實，由于重金屬沉積在湖泊中，這對環(huán)境構(gòu)成一個長遠的威脅，現(xiàn)在有必要采取措施制止這一趨勢。</p><p>　　盡管大量的被水生生物導(dǎo)致的疾病已經(jīng)被報道，但是肯定會有更多的人在承受著由水污染導(dǎo)致的疾病的折磨，飲用水中的和食品中的農(nóng)藥成分和重金屬可以作用于人體健康，對飲用水水質(zhì)和魚類產(chǎn)品的有序控制必須在短時期內(nèi)實現(xiàn)，并采取充分的措施以防止

73、人類受有害污染物的更深的危害。</p><p>　　盡管各種研究和監(jiān)管措施已經(jīng)得以實施，但是有關(guān)水質(zhì)變化的產(chǎn)生和帶來的影響方面的信息還不足，為了能夠形成有效的測量機制以防止更嚴(yán)重的水資源污染，需要對污染源、污染物在水體中的傳遞、個污染物的影響個方面有更詳細(xì)的信息，這就要求有一個充分的管理體系，數(shù)據(jù)庫和信息系統(tǒng)，用來分析污染物對水質(zhì)的影響，檢測系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計應(yīng)按照以下程序：1.早期預(yù)警系統(tǒng)：一個早期預(yù)警系統(tǒng)是必需的，監(jiān)

74、測系統(tǒng)接受和發(fā)送信息給中心控制系統(tǒng)，這些可以是在線監(jiān)測設(shè)備，通常的公共預(yù)警機制，警察可以很快參與到各種事故和污染時間中去，2.監(jiān)測點：對于尼羅河來說，重要的飲用和灌溉水源需要通過定點進行監(jiān)測，為了能夠使對于從阿斯旺大壩放的水進行早期的水質(zhì)預(yù)測，監(jiān)測點必需布置在Nasser湖的附近，對于尼羅河及其分支還有灌溉渠道都有設(shè)置相似的監(jiān)測。</p><p>　　埃及環(huán)境事務(wù)所已經(jīng)確定了41家工業(yè)企業(yè)，這些企業(yè)需要降低它們未