土木專業(yè)外文翻譯----土木工程的發(fā)展

1、<p>　　Development Tendency and Instructions of Civil Engineering</p><p>　　With the progress in science and technology and engineering development of the practice of the disciplines of Civil Engineering

2、has developed into a broad connotation, many categories, and the structure of complex integrated system. For example, on civil engineering projects built with the use of facilities in terms of functionality, and some int

3、erest for residential purposes；Some production activities; some for land, sea and air transport; some for water utilities; some as a tool for informatio</p><p>　　Civil Sociality are accompanied by the develo

4、pment of human society developed. It reflects the construction of engineering facilities in every historical period of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technical development of the face, thus civil society has becom

5、e one of the historical development of the witness. Ancient times, people will start to build simple houses, roads, bridges to meet the needs of easy living and production needs. Later, the people in order to adapt to th

6、e war, producti</p><p>　　After the industrial revolution, especially to the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forwards a new demand; on the other hand, are all areas of society for the adva

7、ncement of Civil Engineering has created favorable conditions. Such as building materials (steel, cement) implementation of industrial production, machinery and energy technology, and design theory of progress are provid

8、ed for the Civil Engineering Materials and technical assurance. Thus this period has been rapid de</p><p>　　Practical Civil Engineering is a highly practical subject. In the early days, through the Engineeri

9、ng Practice of Civil Engineering, sum up successful experiences, especially the lessons learn from the failure of developed. From the beginning the 17th century to Galileo and Newton as the forerunner of modern mechanica

10、l and civil engineering practice, and has gradually formed material mechanics, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, and rock mechanics, as the basic theory of civil engineering di</p><p>　　The reason why t

11、he development of civil engineering technology major with engineering practice rather than by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, there are two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too

12、 complicated, it is difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and theoretical analysis. For example, ground-based foundation, tunnels and underground engineering stress and deformation state and its c

13、hanges over time is still necessary to refer</p><p>　　Technically, economically as well as building up the unity of the arts people seek the most economical to build an engineering facility is scheduled to m

14、eet the needs of users, including the aesthetic requirements. While a project is economic and technical activities are closely related. Project's economic performance at the outset of the project site, on the overall

15、 planning, followed by performance at the design and construction technical. The total investment for project construction, the pro</p><p>　　Meet the functional requirements of civil engineering facilities a

16、s a space for art, first and foremost through the overall layout of the body itself, the various parts of the size of the ratio of lines, colors, light and shade and the shadow of the surrounding environment, including i

17、ts coordination with the natural harmony manifested; followed by the adoption of the Additional engineering facilities in the local decorative reflected. Engineering facilities and decorative shapes can also show p</p

18、><p>　　Civil Engineering at the long-term practice, people not only to the building housing the arts to give considerable attention, and achieved outstanding success; but also for other engineering facilities,

19、but also through the choice of different building materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with the natural environment built on very much in the art is beautiful, functional works also very go

20、od. Ancient China the Great Wall, much of the modern world on TV and oblique </p><p>　　Civil Engineering is the construction of various projects and facilities, collectively referred to science and technolog

21、y. It refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out the investigation, design, construction, maintenance and other technical activities; also refers to the construction of the object, that is built on

22、 the ground or underground, on land or water, directly or indirectly, for human life , production, military, scientific research services for a variety of engin</p><p>　　Construction material and engineering

23、 facilities are basic land, building materials, construction equipment and construction machinery. With these material conditions, economic and convenient built to meet the people can use requirements and aesthetic requi

24、rements, but also to tolerate the various loads security engineering facilities, civil engineering disciplines are the starting point and destination. </p><p>　　Civil Engineering and three times in the histo

25、ry of the leap </p><p>　　Of Civil Engineering play a critical role in the development of, first of all, as are the material foundation for the civil engineering building materials, followed by the subsequent

26、 development of design theory and construction technology. Whenever there is a fine new building materials, the Civil Engineering will have leap-type development. </p><p>　　People at an early stage can only

27、depend on the soil, wood and other natural materials to create engaging activities, the subsequent emergence of such artificial brick and tile building materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural

28、building materials. Chinese in the eleventh century BC and the early Western Zhou Dynasty to create the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. B

29、rick and tile soil better </p><p>　　The appearance of brick and tile people begin extensive and substantial in construction of housing and urban flood control projects. This civil engineering technology has

30、been rapid development. Up to 18 ~ 19 century, at up to two thousand years, brick and tile has been a civil engineering building materials essential for the human civilization has made a great contribution, and even at p

31、resent is also widely used. </p><p>　　Steel substantial civil engineering applications are the second leap. 70s start the seventeenth century the use of pig iron, the beginning of the nineteenth century the

32、use of wrought iron construction of bridges and housing, steel this is a prelude to appear.</p><p>　　From the beginning the middle of the nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out

33、of high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, and the quality of uniform building steel, and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cable. Therefore necessary to adapt to the development of the steel structu

34、re has been booming. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structures, the new truss, frames, grid structure, gradually extended the suspension structure,</p><p>　　Building long-span stru

35、ctures from brick, stone structure, wood structure a few meters, the development of tens of meters to 100 meters of steel structures, a few hundred meters until 1000 meters above modern. So at Dajiang, both shelves start

36、ing Bridge, starting at the ground on the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, and even laying on the ground under the railway, to create an unprecedented miracle. </p><p>　　In order to meet the

37、needs of the development of steel structure engineering, at the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural design works on the theory came into being. Construction machinery, co

38、nstruction technology and construction organization design theory also the development of civil engineering rose from experience become a science, in engineering practice and the basic theories have taken on a new look,

39、which led to more rapid development of civi</p><p>　　The nineteenth century, 20's, made of Portland cement, the concrete had come out. Concrete aggregate can be local materials, ease of molding concrete

40、structures, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, uses are restricted. After the mid-nineteenth century, iron and steel production surged, with the attendant emergence of this new type of reinforced concret

41、e composite building materials, which bear the pulling force of reinforced concrete to bear the pressure to play their respective </p><p>　　Start from the thirties, there has been pre-stressed concrete. Pres

42、tressed concrete structures crack resistance, stiffness and load-bearing capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and pre

43、stressed concrete dominant historical period. Give the appearance of concrete buildings have brought new economic, aesthetic form of engineering structures, so that a new civil engineering construction technology </p&

44、gt;<p><b>　　土木工程的發(fā)展</b></p><p>　　隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)和工程在土木工程的學(xué)科實(shí)踐中的發(fā)展進(jìn)步，已經(jīng)發(fā)展成為內(nèi)容廣泛，種類繁多，綜合系統(tǒng)復(fù)雜的結(jié)構(gòu)。例如，土木工程的項(xiàng)目在建造時(shí)使用的設(shè)備發(fā)揮一定的功能，以及一些體現(xiàn)住宅用途的，對(duì)一些生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)，對(duì)一些地面，海上和空中的運(yùn)輸條件;一些供水設(shè)施，一些作為信息傳輸?shù)墓ぞ撸恍┳鳛槟茉磦鬏數(shù)氖侄蔚鹊?。這需要土木工

45、程材料綜合使用各種條件，以滿足不同需求。土木工程已經(jīng)發(fā)展了很多分支，如住宅項(xiàng)目，鐵路工程，道路工程，機(jī)場(chǎng)工程，橋梁工程，隧道和地下工程，特種工程結(jié)構(gòu)，供水，排水工程，對(duì)燃?xì)夤こ?，港口工程，城市供熱水水利工程科學(xué)。一些分支如水利工程，因?yàn)樗麄冏约旱捻?xiàng)目在不斷增加，專業(yè)科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，一直處于分裂狀態(tài)，從作為一個(gè)獨(dú)立的系統(tǒng)，土木工程學(xué)科有針對(duì)性的，但他們?nèi)匀辉诤艽蟪潭壬吓c土木工程共同點(diǎn)。</p><p>　　公民社會(huì)

46、性是人類與社會(huì)同時(shí)發(fā)展。它反映在每個(gè)歷史時(shí)期的社會(huì)工程設(shè)施建設(shè)，經(jīng)濟(jì)，文化，科學(xué)，技術(shù)發(fā)展的表面，從而民主的社會(huì)已經(jīng)成為了歷史發(fā)展的見證之一。自古以來，人們將開始建立簡(jiǎn)單的房屋，道路，橋梁，以滿足簡(jiǎn)單的生活和生產(chǎn)需要的需要。后來，人們?yōu)榱诉m應(yīng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，產(chǎn)生和傳播宗教生活，需要建設(shè)運(yùn)河，宮殿，廟宇和其他建筑物。許多著名的工程在這一歷史時(shí)期表現(xiàn)出的人類的創(chuàng)造性。例如，中國(guó)的長(zhǎng)城，都江堰，運(yùn)河，趙州橋，應(yīng)縣木塔，埃及的金字塔，希臘的帕臺(tái)農(nóng)神廟，羅

47、馬的供水工程，科洛西姆圓形競(jìng)技場(chǎng)（羅馬大斗獸場(chǎng)），以及其他許多著名的教堂，宮殿等。</p><p>　　工業(yè)革命后，特別是對(duì)20世紀(jì)，一方面，民主社會(huì)提出的新要求，另一方面，是為土木工程對(duì)全社會(huì)的進(jìn)步創(chuàng)造了有利條件的地區(qū)。例如建材（鋼鐵，水泥）的工業(yè)生產(chǎn)，機(jī)械能源技術(shù)，和設(shè)計(jì)理論的進(jìn)展提供了土木工程材料和技術(shù)保證。因此，土木工程在這一時(shí)期得到了快速發(fā)展。世界各地出現(xiàn)的大量的工業(yè)廠房，高層建筑，核電廠，公路，鐵路，

48、大跨度橋梁，大直徑管道大規(guī)模的現(xiàn)代化，長(zhǎng)隧道，大運(yùn)河，大水壩，大機(jī)場(chǎng)，主要港口和海洋工程等?，F(xiàn)代民主社會(huì)繼續(xù)創(chuàng)造人類新的物理環(huán)境，人類社會(huì)與現(xiàn)代文明已成為一個(gè)重要組成部分。</p><p>　　實(shí)用土木工程是一個(gè)非常實(shí)用的科目。在初期，通過土木工程，總結(jié)成功經(jīng)驗(yàn)，特別是工程實(shí)踐的經(jīng)驗(yàn)借鑒了發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的失敗。從一開始，17世紀(jì)的伽利略和牛頓成為現(xiàn)代機(jī)械和民用工程實(shí)踐的先導(dǎo)，并已逐步將材料力學(xué)，結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)，流體力學(xué)，巖石

49、力學(xué)作為土木工程學(xué)科的基本理論。逐漸發(fā)展成為一門科學(xué)土木工程的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。在土木工程的發(fā)展過程中，工程實(shí)踐和經(jīng)驗(yàn)，往往首先在理論上，在作品里，表明事故是無法預(yù)見的新因素，引發(fā)了研究和發(fā)展的新理論。到目前為止，許多作品的處理問題，在很大程度上仍然依賴于實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)。 </p><p>　　土木工程技術(shù)的發(fā)展比起工程實(shí)踐更傾向于實(shí)驗(yàn)和理論研究是有原因的，兩個(gè)原因是：第一，客觀形勢(shì)的太過復(fù)雜，很難絕對(duì)的履行實(shí)驗(yàn)室或現(xiàn)場(chǎng)試驗(yàn)

50、和理論分析。例如，地基基礎(chǔ)，隧道和地下工程應(yīng)力和變形狀態(tài)，隨著時(shí)間的變化還需要參考的工程經(jīng)驗(yàn)，分析，判斷。第二個(gè)原因是新的工程實(shí)踐是為了揭示新問題。例如，一個(gè)高層建筑，超高層塔桅和大跨橋梁建設(shè)，風(fēng)的阻力，地震工程突出問題，以及發(fā)展新的理論和技術(shù)。</p><p>　　為了在技術(shù)，經(jīng)濟(jì)上與建筑物藝術(shù)氣息相互統(tǒng)一人們想要最經(jīng)濟(jì)的建立一個(gè)研發(fā)基地，以滿足用戶的需求，包括審美要求。這是一個(gè)將經(jīng)濟(jì)和技術(shù)活動(dòng)密切的聯(lián)系在一起

51、的項(xiàng)目。這個(gè)項(xiàng)目的經(jīng)濟(jì)表現(xiàn)在項(xiàng)目工地一開始就整體規(guī)劃，其次是在設(shè)計(jì)和施工的技術(shù)性能。該項(xiàng)目建設(shè)總投資，項(xiàng)目建成后經(jīng)濟(jì)效益時(shí)期和維修費(fèi)用的使用是衡量經(jīng)濟(jì)的一個(gè)重要的方面。將密切接觸的這些技術(shù)問題加以考慮。</p><p>　　為了滿足民用工程設(shè)施，作為藝術(shù)空間的功能要求，首先是通過結(jié)構(gòu)本身的總體布局，對(duì)各個(gè)地方的尺寸大小，顏色，光影及周圍環(huán)境的陰影，包括其與自然和諧協(xié)調(diào)的表現(xiàn)，然后由其他工程設(shè)施通過在建筑裝飾反映。

52、裝飾工程設(shè)施和形狀也可以顯示的地方風(fēng)格，民族風(fēng)格和時(shí)間風(fēng)格。</p><p>　　土木工程在長(zhǎng)期實(shí)踐中，不僅對(duì)房屋建筑藝術(shù)給予極大關(guān)注，不但工程項(xiàng)目上，而且也為其他工程設(shè)施取得了杰出成就，通過不同的建筑材料，如選擇使用石，鋼和鋼筋混凝土與非常多非常好的建造藝術(shù)自然環(huán)境優(yōu)美，功能性的工程。古代中國(guó)的長(zhǎng)城，更是現(xiàn)代世界上經(jīng)典，斜張橋，也是這方面的例子。</p><p>　　土木工程是各種科學(xué)和

53、技術(shù)設(shè)施建設(shè)項(xiàng)目的統(tǒng)稱。它指的是材料的應(yīng)用，設(shè)備和進(jìn)行勘察，設(shè)計(jì)，建造，維修和其他技術(shù)活動(dòng);還有就是建于地面或地下的有關(guān)土地或水的建筑物，直接或間接地對(duì)人類生活，生產(chǎn)，軍事，科研服務(wù)的工程設(shè)施給予幫助，例如房屋，公路，鐵路，管道，隧道，橋梁，河渠，堤壩，港口，電廠，機(jī)場(chǎng)，海上平臺(tái)，供水，排水和防護(hù)工程。</p><p>　　施工材料和工程設(shè)施是基本的方面，建筑材料，建筑設(shè)備和建筑機(jī)械。有了這些物質(zhì)條件，可以滿足人

54、們對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)和建設(shè)的使用要求和審美需求，而且還承受各種負(fù)荷安全工程交通便捷，土木工程學(xué)科的出發(fā)點(diǎn)和目的地。</p><p>　　土木工程中的三個(gè)歷史時(shí)代的飛躍</p><p>　　土木工程發(fā)揮在發(fā)展中起到關(guān)鍵的作用，首先，在設(shè)計(jì)理論和施工技術(shù)以后的發(fā)展之后將土木工程的建筑材料作為物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)。每當(dāng)有一個(gè)較好的新建筑材料，土木工程將有跨越式發(fā)展。</p><p>　　在早期階

55、段，人們只能靠土壤，木材和其他天然材料進(jìn)行建設(shè)活動(dòng)，這種人工磚瓦建材隨后出現(xiàn)，使人類第一次打破天然建筑材料的束縛。在公元前11世紀(jì)中國(guó)和西周早期創(chuàng)造出了瓦。在第五世紀(jì)的第一個(gè)磚出現(xiàn)公元前3世紀(jì)，是當(dāng)時(shí)的戰(zhàn)國(guó)墓。磚瓦在力學(xué)性能上優(yōu)于土壤，可以就地取材，易于制造。</p><p>　　使用磚瓦開始廣泛出現(xiàn)在住房和建設(shè)重大城市防洪工程。土木工程技術(shù)得到了快速發(fā)展。直到18?19世紀(jì)，在高達(dá)兩千年來，磚瓦一直是土木工程建

56、筑材料為人類文明生活所必需做出了重大貢獻(xiàn)，甚至現(xiàn)在也被廣泛使用。</p><p>　　大量使用鋼鐵是土木工程應(yīng)用的第二次飛躍。從17世紀(jì) 70年代開始生鐵被使用，在19世紀(jì)初使用鍛鐵建造橋梁和房屋建筑，鋼鐵，這是一個(gè)前奏出現(xiàn)。</p><p>　　從一開始到19世紀(jì)中葉，冶金，冶煉及壓延高強(qiáng)度和壓縮強(qiáng)度的延展性來統(tǒng)一的評(píng)判建筑鋼材的質(zhì)量，然后生產(chǎn)出高強(qiáng)度鋼絲，鋼絲繩。因此，出現(xiàn)了鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的蓬

57、勃發(fā)展。除了原有梁，拱結(jié)構(gòu)的應(yīng)用，新的桁架，框架，電網(wǎng)結(jié)構(gòu)逐步出現(xiàn)，擴(kuò)大了懸挑結(jié)構(gòu)，結(jié)構(gòu)形式出現(xiàn)百家爭(zhēng)艷的情況。</p><p>　　建設(shè)大跨度結(jié)構(gòu)由磚，石結(jié)構(gòu)，木結(jié)構(gòu)的數(shù)米，幾十米，發(fā)展到一百米，幾百米到一千米以上的現(xiàn)代建筑的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)。因此，從大江，貨架上都大橋，到摩天大樓和高塔式建筑地面開始，即使是在地面下鋪設(shè)鐵路都開始使用大跨度結(jié)構(gòu)，創(chuàng)造出一種前所未有的奇跡。</p><p>　　為了

58、滿足在牛頓力學(xué)，材料力學(xué)基礎(chǔ)上的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程發(fā)展的需要，結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)，結(jié)構(gòu)的理論設(shè)計(jì)作品應(yīng)運(yùn)而生。建筑機(jī)械，建筑技術(shù)和施工組織設(shè)計(jì)理論也是在土木工程的發(fā)展中從經(jīng)驗(yàn)上升成為科學(xué)，在工程實(shí)踐和基本理論上具有了一種新的面貌，從而導(dǎo)致更多的土木工程的快速發(fā)展。</p><p>　　19世紀(jì)20年代，水泥混合而成的混凝土已出現(xiàn)?；炷凉橇峡梢允钱?dāng)?shù)氐牟牧希ㄔ煲子诔尚突炷两Y(jié)構(gòu)，但混凝土受拉強(qiáng)度非常小，使用受到限制。之后19世紀(jì)

59、中葉，鋼鐵生產(chǎn)大幅增加，隨著這種新型隨之出現(xiàn)了鋼筋混凝土復(fù)合建筑材料，鋼筋承受拉力混凝土承受的壓力，發(fā)揮各自的優(yōu)勢(shì)。自20世紀(jì)初，鋼筋混凝土已被廣泛應(yīng)用于民用工程的領(lǐng)域中使用。</p><p>　　從30年代開始，出現(xiàn)了預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土。預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土具有一定的結(jié)構(gòu)抗裂性，剛度和承載能力，大大高于鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)，是土木工程進(jìn)入一個(gè)更高更廣闊的領(lǐng)域。土木工程到鋼筋混凝土和預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土主導(dǎo)的歷史時(shí)期，同時(shí)為混凝土建筑物的外