烏克蘭的水污染尋求可能的解決辦法【外文翻譯】

1、<p><b>　　畢業(yè)論文外文原文</b></p><p>　　外文題目：Water Pollution in Ukraine: The Search for possible Solutions </p><p>　　出 處：Agricultural Sciences,Impe

2、rical College at Wye ,Kent,UK</p><p>　　作 者：NIKOLAI NAZAROV, HADRIAN F. COOK & GRAHAM WOODGATE</p><p><b>　　原 文：</b></p><p>　　Water Pollution in Ukraine: The Searc

3、h for Possible</p><p><b>　　Solutions</b></p><p>　　NIKOLAI NAZAROV, HADRIAN F. COOK & GRAHAM WOODGATE</p><p>　　Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College at Wye, Kent, U

4、K</p><p><b>　　ABSTRACT</b></p><p>　　In Ukraine, average and maximum concentrations of certain pollutants in inland water bodies are unacceptably high, while the number of heavy pollu

5、tion accidents (one-out effluent discharges capable of causing health hazards) is increasing. Meanwhile, the transition from a centrally planned to a free market economy is associated with severe economic downturn and a

6、marked industrial decline. However, no comprehensive analyses related to issues linking water pollution and socio-economic situation d</p><p>　　Introduction</p><p>　　This paper attempts to link

7、water pollution issues with the socio-economic situation in Ukraine. The methodology involves an analysis of official statistics concerning surface water quality in Ukraine in terms of concentrations of certain pollutant

8、s and pollution accidents.1 Then consideration is given to relevant socio-economic issues and efficiency of pollution prevention in the country. The years emphasized in the analysis, 1993–1996, represent the initial peri

9、od of rapidly worsening economic</p><p>　　Since then, the country has been pursuing a course of political democratization and economic liberalization, which has brought about significant changes in state pol

10、itics, the national economy and public welfare. Economic difficulties continued through the late 1990s and Ukraine’s economy began showing signs of improvement only around the year 2000. </p><p>　　During the

11、 period 1991–2003, patterns of environmental pollution changed and the average concentration of pollutants tended to decrease. However, levels of river pollution became more variable and the Ukrainian MEP reports shortte

12、rm maximum concentrations reaching tens of standard maximum admissible concentrations (MEP, 1998, 2000, 2002). Problems of acute water pollution are especially pronounced in industrialized and densely populated areas whe

13、re most sources of pollution, including that of su</p><p>　　At present, in most parts of Ukraine the quality of river water is not of a satisfactory standard and the authorities responsible for protection of

14、 the environment are unable to deal with the problem, mainly because of financial and staff shortages. Whether it is river pollution, poor air quality, soil contamination or any other environmental issue, it is inadequat

15、ely addressed (Barannik et al., 1996; MEP, 2002).</p><p>　　This paper intends to draw on major findings of research focused on waterquality in Ukrainian rivers and upon major factors that influence it. The m

16、ain objective of the research described is to identify sources other then national environmental protection authorities that could help to mitigate the problem of river (and environmental) pollution. Such analysis is rel

17、evant to consideration of policy importation to the former USSR states, including consideration of UK and EU policies for water prot</p><p>　　An Overview of Surface Water Pollution by River Basins</p>

18、<p>　　There are eight major river basins in the country (Figure 1). The largest is the Dnipro river basin, which occupies about 45% of Ukrainian inland territory. The basins of the Pivdenny Bug and the small rivers

19、 of Crimea are located entirely within Ukraine’s territory, while many rivers of other basins originate outside Ukraine. This presents further problems for river basin management at the state level.</p><p>　

20、　The pressure of human activities on natural ecosystems within the basins is spread unevenly. There are areas under urban and industrial development, mining, agriculture, nature reserves and wilderness. Therefore air and

21、 water pollution is highly</p><p>　　Figure 1. Schematic location of river basins in Ukraine. Source: Gritzenko (1995).</p><p>　　location specific and variable in magnitude. There exist heavily p

22、olluted areas with adverse ecosystem and human health implications, alongside areas where the natural environment has virtually been unaltered.</p><p>　　Highly polluted areas usually coincide with densely po

23、pulated urbanized areas where most infrastructure and industrial production plants are located and, therefore, need to be given primary attention when implementing measures on prevention of pollution. According to inform

24、ation released by the Ukrainian MEP, average concentrations of certain pollutants in river water are often above 1 MAC (maximum admissible concentration), and acute short-term concentrations may reach 40–90 MACs and more

25、 (MEP,</p><p>　　At present there is chronic pollution of water in all of the major river basins of Ukraine. According to the MEP, in the late 1990s, 2000 and 2001 there was neither major improvement nor dete

26、rioration of river water quality (MEP, 2000, 2002). The findings of an analysis dating from the mid 1990s therefore remain relevant. More significant changes took place during early post-independence years. The period 19

27、92–1996 was characterized by rapid changes from a centrally planned to a free </p><p>　　Figure 2. Decline of GDP in Ukraine during the period 1989–1998, using 1989 as the base</p><p>　　year (100

28、%). Source: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (1999).</p><p>　　market economy, hyperinflation, closure of many industries, development of service and trade sectors and a deterioration of livin

29、g standards. However, with respect to national gross domestic product (GDP), after 1996economic decline slowed down significantly (Figure 2). In 2000, for the first time in a decade, there was an increase in GDP. GDP gre

30、w by an average of 7% for all states of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), including Ukraine. The growth is primarily linked to profitable e</p><p>　　Official data issued by the Ukrainian MEP show

31、 that during the period 1993–1996 concentrations of a range of polluting substances constantly exceeded 1 MAC in all river basins (Table 1). It should be noted that values of Ukrainian MACs are usually less strict than t

32、hose of European Union (EU) MACs. However, taking into account that concentrations of certain pollutants sometimes exceed 1 MAC by many times, these levels of pollution are high enough to be of threat to human health and

33、 water ecology</p><p>　　With the exception of Crimea, all basins also experienced heavy pollution accidents (HPA). In some basins, pollution and number of HPA (NHPA) tended to decrease; in others there was a

34、n increase, or no clear change in pollution or NHPA. On some occasions there were hundreds of HPA (Table 2).</p><p>　　In the largest river basin, the Dnipro, the annual average concentration (AC) of most pol

35、lutants was rather variable (Table 3).</p><p>　　In 1996 the AC of seven selected pollutants was still too high—1 MAC or more. This is serious because the Dnipro basin occupies almost half of the entire terri

36、tory of Ukraine. Furthermore, six large water reservoirs designed for the purposes of hydroelectricity and water supply are located within the basin. On the other hand, the basin is not heavily industrialized in terms of

37、 extractive and manufacturing industries.</p><p>　　Compared to 1993, by 2000 there was a 22% reduction in average concentration </p><p>　　of the selected pollutants and also a 37% drop in the ma

38、gnitude of recorded maximum concentrations (MC) of the pollutants (Table 4). At the same time, however, the Dnipro basin experienced a dramatic increase in NHPA between 1993 and 1996, from 10 in 1993 to522 in 1996 (more

39、than 5100%). According to recent releases of data by the MEP, during the period 1997–2000 pollution levels in the basin declined, but not by more than about 2% per annum (MEP, 2000, 2002). In 2000, NHPA in Ukraine was st

40、ill </p><p>　　In the same manner, an analysis has been conducted for the Zakhidny Bug, Danube, Dnistr, Pivdenny Bug, Priazovie, Seversky Donetz and Crimea basins (see Table 4) using data from MEP reports on

41、the state of the environment released in 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000 and 2002.</p><p>　　Selected as an example, in 1996 the average and maximum concentrations of certain pollutants in all river basins were signif

42、icant (Table 5).</p><p>　　Dramatic variations in pollutant concentrations might be due to the frequent HPA, but there is also a possibility that the quality of reported data is low as a result of poor and ir

43、regular monitoring of water quality or misrepresentation of data in MEP reports.</p><p>　　Many major rivers in Ukraine originate outside its borders, and so can be subject to water pollution abroad. For exam

44、ple, some pollutants in the River Danube come from Western and Central European countries located upstream, including the former Yugoslavia, a region disrupted by recent military conflict.</p><p>　　The basin

45、 of Crimea, with only a few individual small rivers, is very different from other river basins in Ukraine. In 1996, river pollution in the Crimea basin was still lower than that in other basins, probably due to the influ

46、ence of tourist resorts. Crimea has traditionally been a resort region with a low number of manufacturing and processing industries capable of causing serious pollution. However, during the period 1993–2000 pollution lev

47、els in Crimean rivers were on the increase. The pol</p><p>　　Comprehensive analysis of the information briefly mentioned earlier in this section would suggest that countrywide there was approximately a 20% r

48、eduction in average levels of river pollution and nearly 50% increase in NHPA during the period 1993–2000. According to MEP reports (1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002), in 2000 the greatest pollution load per unit of basin ar

49、ea fell on the rivers of the Dnistr basin. This was followed in descending order of magnitude by the rivers of the Seversky Donetz, Pr</p><p>　　The trends of change in NHPA and pollution levels do not corres

50、pond well for the Danube, Pivdenny Bug, Dnipro, Priazovie and Crimea basins. This is partly be due to basin size and water resource differences, the nature of economic activities, and density and distribution of populati

51、on, but can also be accounted for by ‘non-heavy’ pollution accidents and unrecorded HPA: nonheavy pollution accidents are those related to small but frequent discharges of under-treated and untreated effluents. The ac<

52、;/p><p>　　It is not surprising that the general trend in pollution change is negative, because Ukraine’s economy experienced a deepening crisis throughout the 1990s, which caused many plants and enterprises to

53、reduce or even completely cease activities. For example, in 1996, general water use in the country was 1675 million m3 (or 8.6%) less than that in 1995. However, the trend of deteriorating treatment of waste water and th

54、e growing number of pollution accidents brings about the possibility of chronic </p><p>　　Sources of Pollution</p><p>　　Most river pollution in Ukraine comes from point sources in the industrial

55、 and household sectors, as well as mining and landfill sites. Pollution from agriculture was significant before Ukraine’s independence in 1991. At present, discharges of agrochemical and organic contaminants from farms a

56、re insignificant, due to a lack of funds to invest into agricultural production (Barannik et al., 1996).</p><p>　　Due to the predominantly industrial character of pollution, it is possible to identify the fo

57、llowing ‘oblasts’ (administrative territorial units): Zaporozhie, Kirovograd, Dnepropetrovsk, Lugansk and Donetzk (Figure 3). These are areas where a lot of mining and heavy metallurgy enterprises are located, together w

58、ith all the major cities in the country that are centres of industrial production and are provided with large municipal waste-water treatment facilities. In 1996, at the scale of administ</p><p>　　Hard hit b

59、y economic crisis, many national industries completely shut down, while others operated at only a fraction of their potential capacity. Export-oriented oil, gas, metal processing and agricultural enterprises, however, ha

60、ve been less severely affected. Although there has been some economic upturn during the last few years, it has not yet brought about substantial positive changes to the general state of Ukraine’s industries and populatio

61、n welfare.</p><p>　　As a result of economic decline, the welfare of most people has decreased significantly since 1990. For example, in 1990, when there was virtually no unemployment, the national average mo

62、nthly wage was nearly US$200 and the price of bread was about US$0.15. In 2000, official unemployment was about 6%, the average monthly wage was about US$40, while the price of bread was US$0.2. Nevertheless, during t

63、he 1990s there appeared a small (up to 3% of the total population) but very rich and powerful</p><p>　　Taking into account the economic hardships being experienced by most of the national industries and the

64、population alike, it is not surprising that enterprise managers as well as the general public do not pay due attention to prevention of environmental pollution. However, no comprehensive study of how the socio-economic s

65、ituation in Ukraine influences the quality of water pollution prevention has been carried out.</p><p>　　According to an earlier assessment, major pollutants in river water come from industrial and municipal

66、sources (MEP, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000). Sharp fluctuations in pollutant concentration and NHPA suggest that river pollution is often caused by short-term heavy discharges of accumulated sewage. The sewage is inadequately

67、treated or not treated at all by the many water users by whom it is generated.</p><p>　　Causes of Pollution</p><p>　　While state environmental legislation and policies emphasize the need to prot

68、ect the environment, industries consider pollution prevention uneconomical (Gritzenko, 1995). This is partly because no account is taken of the benefits of pollution abatement, such as improved human health, amenity, pre

69、servation of biodiversity, etc. Other factors include a shortage of funds in commercial enterprises, and state and local budgets; a lack of foreign expertise and financial assistance; limited public supp</p><p

70、>　　National enterprises struggling to operate in difficult economic conditions are primarily concerned with reducing and covering production costs in order to remain in business. Because of the decline in economic act

71、ivity, income to local and state budgets from taxes is not enough to address environmental problems adequately. For example, in 1996 the total state budget for Ukraine (a country of approximately 50 million people) was a

72、bout US$15 billion, and formal expenditure for environmental prote</p><p>　　Another difficulty is that state funds allocated for environmental protection are utilized in the least satisfactory manner compare

73、d to any other sector of state expenditure. For example, only 72.2% of the environmental funds allocated to enterprises and institutions in 1995, and just 58.7% in 1996, were utilized as intended (MEP, 1997, 1998).</p

74、><p>　　While a lot of foreign assistance has been provided for economic liberalization and political democratization, hardly any help has been given to abate environmental problems. Foreign experts do come to s

75、tudy environmental problems in the country, and suggest ways of dealing with them, but the experts are not well aware of local culture, politics and relevant social issues, and therefore can only give general technical a

76、dvice to national professionals. Also, implementation is costly; full charges</p><p>　　The general public in Ukraine is concerned about the poor quality of water in many water bodies. However most people are

77、 not willing to give support to better pollution control and prevention because of their continuous struggle for their own and their families’ survival in conditions of socio-economic crisis. The harsh reality of such st

78、ruggle is reflected by the fact that, since the early 1990s, Ukraine’s population has been declining due to increased mortality, reduced birth rates and out-mig</p><p>　　Enforcement of the provisions of envi

79、ronmental legislation is vitally important, especially when there is mass non-compliance. At present the staff of environmental inspectorates under the MEP is not sufficient to carry out adequate checks of all enterprise

80、s—potential polluters. According to the MEP (1998, 2000), with this level of staffing it is possible to carry out checks at no more than 20% of enterprises in the country.</p><p>　　Thus, it appears that rive

81、r pollution problems have deeper roots than a simple inadequacy of pollution abatement techniques, expertise or the national system of environmental management. The pollution is an indirect result of the complicated and

82、problematic socio-economic and political situation in the country.</p><p><b>　　譯 文：</b></p><p>　　烏克蘭的水污染：尋求可能的解決辦法</p><p>　　尼古拉納扎羅夫，哈德良樓廚師和格雷厄姆伍德蓋特</p><p>

83、;　　英國皇家學院的農業(yè)科學出版社</p><p><b>　　摘 要</b></p><p>　　在烏克蘭，平均及最高濃度的某些污染物在內陸水體中高得令人無法接受，而一些嚴重污染事故（ 增加1人的污水排放能夠對健康造成危害）正在增加。同時，從中央計劃經濟向自由市場經濟的轉型是與嚴重的經濟衰退和顯著的工業(yè)下降相聯(lián)系的。然而，在1991-2003年間卻沒有有關將水污染

84、和社會經濟狀況聯(lián)系起來進行全面分析的課題。在目前的水平，以及在不遠的將來，有關水的質量可以很大的提高，都認為是不可能的。一些改進可以通過改變控制污染的系統(tǒng)和公眾的態(tài)度，以及獲得相關的專門知識和來自國外的資金來獲得。</p><p><b>　　導 言</b></p><p>　　本文試圖通過烏克蘭將水污染問題與社會經濟狀況聯(lián)系起來。方法包括通過烏克蘭有關的官方統(tǒng)計數(shù)

85、字以及一定濃度的污染物和污染事故分析地表水水質。然后，考慮有關社會經濟問題和在該國家預防污染的效率問題。1993年至1996年，代表了迅速惡化的經濟衰退的初期和在1991年從蘇聯(lián)獨立出來以后的去工業(yè)化時期都強調分析。在1996年至2000年，地表水污染的模式變化不大（部環(huán)境保護（ MEP ），2000年）。</p><p>　　自那時以來，該國一直處于推行政治民主化和經濟自由化的過程中，這帶來了國家政治、國民經濟

86、和公共福利的重大變化。烏克蘭的經濟困難，一直持續(xù)到20世紀90年代末，只有到了2000年，烏克蘭的經濟才開始出現(xiàn)改善的跡象。</p><p>　　在1991-2003年期間，環(huán)境污染的模式改變了不少，平均污染物濃度也有減少的傾向。然而，各級河水的污染問題變得更加嚴重，烏克蘭歐洲議會的有關報告中的短期內的最高濃度達到數(shù)萬標準的最高容許濃度（歐洲會員議會，1998年，2000年，2002年）。有關嚴重的水體污染問題在

87、工業(yè)化和人口稠密地區(qū)尤為突出，那里大多數(shù)被認為是污染源，包括位于地球表面的地表水，（ Gritzenko ， 1995年）。</p><p>　　目前，在大部分地區(qū)，烏克蘭的河水質量不是一個令人滿意的標準，有關負責保護環(huán)境當局也無法處理這個問題，這主要是因為財務和工作人員短缺造成的。無論是河流污染，空氣質量差，土壤污染或任何其他的環(huán)境問題，都沒有被恰當?shù)靥幚恚?996; 歐洲會員議會，2002年）。</p&

88、gt;<p>　　本文打算側重于利用烏克蘭河流水質的主要研究結果和各主要影響因素進行研究。本文描述研究的主要目的是確定水污染的原因，而不是可以幫助減輕河流（和環(huán)境）污染這一問題的國家環(huán)境保護當局。這種分析是和前蘇聯(lián)地區(qū)國家的進口審議政策相關的，其中包括考慮了英國和歐盟政策的水資源保護。</p><p>　　江河流域地表水污染的綜述</p><p>　　在烏克蘭，有8個主要江河

89、流域（圖1 ）。遍布了烏克蘭約45 ％的內陸領土。盆地和中小河流的克里米亞是完全位于烏克蘭的領土以內的，而許多其他河流流域卻發(fā)源于烏克蘭境外。這就代表了在州一級的基礎上進行河流的流域管理會有更大的麻煩。</p><p>　　人類在不同地區(qū)的活動作用于自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的壓力的分布是不平衡的。如城市和工業(yè)發(fā)展，采礦，農業(yè)，自然保護區(qū)和荒野等的不同地區(qū)。因此，在這些地區(qū)的空氣和水的污染隨著地區(qū)的不同變數(shù)非常大。有些地區(qū)可能

90、存在著嚴重的污染情況，自然環(huán)境幾乎已經被完全改變，這些地區(qū)對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)和人類健康有著不利的影響。</p><p>　　高污染地區(qū)通常位于有著大多數(shù)基礎設施和工業(yè)生產工廠的城市人口稠密地區(qū)，因此，當執(zhí)行防止污染措施時，需要給予特別的關注。根據(jù)烏克蘭會議公布的資料，某些河水的污染物的平均濃度往往超過1個MAC （最高容許濃度），而短期的急性的濃度可達到40-90 MAC甚至更多（歐洲會員議會， 1998年， 2002年

91、）。</p><p>　　圖1烏克蘭的河流流域位置示意圖 來源：Gritzenko (1995).</p><p>　　目前，在烏克蘭的所有主要江河流域都處于慢性污染的狀態(tài)。根據(jù)歐洲會員議會，烏克蘭的河流水質在20世紀90年代后期，2000年和2001年既沒有重大的改進，也沒有惡化，（歐洲議會議員，2000年，2002年）。追溯到20世紀90年代中期的調查結果的分析仍可以得出相同的結論

92、。在早期獨立后的幾年發(fā)生更重要的變化。1992-1996年期間的特點是從中央計劃經濟向自由市場經濟迅速變化，持續(xù)通貨膨脹，許多行業(yè)倒閉，服務貿易部門的發(fā)展和生活水平的惡化。然而，從一個國家國內生產總值（ GDP ）可以看出， 在1996年以后經濟增長明顯放慢，（圖2 ） 。在2000年，從蘇聯(lián)解體以來第一個10年，各國GDP有了一定的增長，所有從聯(lián)合體獨立出來的國家的國內生產總值平均增長了7 ％（獨聯(lián)體），其中包括烏克蘭。GDP的增長主

93、要是通過自然資源的出口利潤實現(xiàn)的，俄羅斯與獨聯(lián)體國家有著密切的貿易聯(lián)系（俄羅斯的國家電視代表（ NTV電視臺），2001年）。從2000年到現(xiàn)在，烏克蘭的經濟持續(xù)增長。在2001年全國國內生產總值增長9 ％ ，而在2002年國內生產總值增長了4.1 ％ （美國中央情報局（ CIA ），200</p><p>　　烏克蘭發(fā)布的官方數(shù)據(jù)的電位顯示，在1993-1996年期間在所有的河流流域集中了一系列不斷超過1 MA

94、C的污染物質（見表1 ）。應該指出的是，烏克蘭互助的價值觀通常沒有歐洲聯(lián)盟（歐盟）互助的價值觀嚴格。但是，考慮到一定污染物的濃度有時超過1MAC的許多倍，這些污染物的污染程度很高，足以威脅人類健康和生態(tài)用水（Barannik等，1996年）。</p><p>　　圖2 以1989年為基期（ 100 ％ ）烏克蘭在1989-1998年期間的國內生產總值的下降。來源：歐洲復興和開發(fā)銀行（ 1999年） </p

95、><p>　　表1 烏克蘭主要污染物的水質標準</p><p>　　污 染 物 計 量 單 位 MAC的 價 值</p><p>　　亞硝酸鹽 鎂 二氧化氮/升 0.2</p><p>　　銨 鎂 銨/升 2.0

96、</p><p>　　石油產品 毫克/升 50</p><p>　　酚類 C6H5OH毫克/升 1</p><p>　　錳 錳 毫克/升 50</p><p>　　銅

97、 銅 毫克/升 1000</p><p>　　鋅 鋅 毫克/升 1000</p><p>　　來源：MEP (1996).</p><p>　　表2 1993年， 1994-1995年， 1996年， 1998年和2000年在烏克蘭流域HPA的數(shù)量</p><p&

98、gt;　　河流流域 1993年 1994 - 1995年 1996年 1998年 2000年 </p><p>　　Zakhidny Bug 79 60 71 68 62 </p><p>　　Danube 48 30 47