外文翻譯----商業(yè)銀行風險管理

1、<p>　　“RISK MANAGEMENT IN COMMERCIAL BANKS”</p><p>　　(A CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS) - ABSTRACT ONLY</p><p>　　1. PREAMBLE:</p><p>　　1.1 Risk Management:</p

2、><p>　　The future of banking will undoubtedly rest on risk management dynamics. Only those banks that have efficient risk management system will survive in the market in the long run. The effective management o

3、f credit risk is a critical component of comprehensive risk management essential for long-term success of a banking institution. Credit risk is the oldest and biggest risk that bank, by virtue of its very nature of busin

4、ess, inherits. This has however, acquired a greater significance in the recen</p><p>　　The corner stone of credit risk management is the establishment of a framework that defines corporate priorities, loan a

5、pproval process, credit risk rating system, risk-adjusted pricing system, loan-review mechanism and comprehensive reporting system.</p><p>　　1.2 Significance of the study:</p><p>　　The fundament

6、al business of lending has brought trouble to individual banks and entire banking system. It is, therefore, imperative that the banks are adequate systems for credit assessment of individual projects and evaluating risk

7、associated therewith as well as the industry as a whole. Generally, Banks in India evaluate a proposal through the traditional tools of project financing, computing maximum permissible limits, assessing management capabi

8、lities and prescribing a ceiling for an industr</p><p>　　Credit Risk, that is, default by the borrower to repay lent money, remains the most important risk to manage till date. The predominance of credit ris

9、k is even reflected in the composition of economic capital, which banks are required to keep a side for protection against various risks. According to one estimate, Credit Risk takes about 70% and 30% remaining is shared

10、 between the other two primary risks, namely Market risk (change in the market price and operational risk i.e., failure of interna</p><p>　　Better and effective strategic credit risk management process is a

11、better way to Manage portfolio credit risk. The process provides a framework to ensure consistency between strategy and implementation that reduces potential volatility in earnings and maximize shareholders wealth. Beyon

12、d and over riding the specifics of risk modeling issues, the challenge is moving towards improved credit risk management lies in addressing banks’ readiness and openness to accept change to a more transparent syst</p&

13、gt;<p>　　There is a need for Strategic approach to Credit Risk Management (CRM) in Indian Commercial Banks, particularly in view of;</p><p>　　(1) Higher NPAs level in comparison with global benchmark&

14、lt;/p><p>　　(2) RBI’ s stipulation about dividend distribution by the banks</p><p>　　(3) Revised NPAs level and CAR norms</p><p>　　(4) New Basel Capital Accord (Basel –II) revolution&l

15、t;/p><p>　　According to the study conducted by ICRA Limited, the gross NPAs as a proportion of total advances for Indian Banks was 9.40 percent for financial year 2003 and 10.60 percent for financial year 20021

16、. The value of the gross NPAs as ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was as low as 2.26 percent. Net NPAs as a proportion of net advances of Indian banks was 4.33 percent for financial year 2003

17、and 5.39 percent for financial year 2002. As against this, the value of net NPAs </p><p>　　The RBI has recently announced that the banks should not pay dividends at more than 33.33 percent of their net profi

18、t. It has further provided that the banks having NPA levels less than 3 percent and having Capital Adequacy Reserve Ratio (CARR) of more than 11 percent for the last two years will only be eligible to declare dividends w

19、ithout the permission from RBI3. This step is for strengthening the balance sheet of all the banks in the country. The banks should provide sufficient provisions fr</p><p>　　NPAs are the primary indicators o

20、f credit risk. Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is another measure of credit risk. CAR is supposed to act as a buffer against credit loss, which isset at 9 percent under the RBI stipulation4. With a view to moving towards In

21、ternational best practices and to ensure greater transparency, it has been decided to adopt the ’ 90 days’ ‘ over due’ norm for identification of NPAs from the year ending March 31, 2004. </p><p>　　The New B

22、asel Capital Accord is scheduled to be implemented by the end of 2006. All the banking supervisors may have to join the Accord. Even the domestic banks in addition to internationally active banks may have to conform to t

23、he Accord principles in the coming decades. The RBI as the regulator of the Indian banking industry has shown keen interest in strengthening the system, and the individual banks have responded in good measure in orientin

24、g themselves towards global best practices.</p><p>　　1.3 Credit Risk Management(CRM) dynamics:</p><p>　　The world over, credit risk has proved to be the most critical of all risks faced by a ban

25、king institution. A study of bank failures in New England found that, of the 62 banks in existence before 1984, which failed from 1989 to 1992, in 58 cases it was observed that loans and advances were not being repaid in

26、 time 5 . This signifies the role of credit risk management and therefore it forms the basis of present research analysis.</p><p>　　Researchers and risk management practitioners have constantly tried to impr

27、ove on current techniques and in recent years, enormous strides have been made in the art and science of credit risk measurement and management6. Much of the progress in this field has resulted form the limitations of tr

28、aditional approaches to credit risk management and with the current Bank for International Settlement’ (BIS) regulatory model. Even in banks which regularly fine-tune credit policies and streamline credit </p><

29、;p>　　The two distinct dimensions of credit risk management can readily be identified as preventive measures and curative measures. Preventive measures include risk assessment, risk measurement and risk pricing, early

30、warning system to pick early signals of future defaults and better credit portfolio diversification. The curative measures, on the other hand, aim at minimizing post-sanction loan losses through such steps as securitizat

31、ion, derivative trading, risk sharing, legal enforcement etc. It is </p><p>　　The study also intends to throw some light on the two most significant developments impacting the fundamentals of credit risk man

32、agement practices of banking industry – New Basel Capital Accord and Risk Based Supervision. Apart from highlighting the salient features of credit risk management prescriptions under New Basel Accord, attempts are made

33、to codify the response of Indian banking professionals to various proposals under the accord. Similarly, RBI proposed Risk Based Supervision (RBS) is e</p><p>　　1.4 Objectives of the research:</p><

34、;p>　　The present study attempts to achieve the following objectives:</p><p>　　1. Analysis of trends in Non-Performing Assets of commercial banks in India.</p><p>　　2. Analysis of trends in cr

35、edit portfolio diversification during the post-liberalization period.</p><p>　　3. Studying relationship between diversified portfolio and non-performing assets of public sector banks vis-à-vis private s

36、ector banks.</p><p>　　4. Profiling and analysis of concentration risk in public sector banks vis-à-vis private sector banks.</p><p>　　5. Evaluating the credit risk management practices in p

37、ublic sector banks vis-à-vis private sector banks.</p><p>　　6. Reviewing the New Basel Capital Accord norms and their likely impact on credit risk management practices of Indian commercial banks.</p&

38、gt;<p>　　7. Examining the role of Risk Based Supervision in strengthening credit risk management practices of Indian commercials banks.</p><p>　　8. Suggesting a broad outline of measures for improving

39、 credit risk management practices of Indian commercial banks.</p><p>　　2. THE PROBLEM OF NON-PERFORMING ASSETS</p><p>　　2.1 Introduction:</p><p>　　Liberlization and Globalization us

40、hered in by the government in the early 90s have thrown open many challenges to the Indian financial sector. Banks, amongst other things, were set on a path to align their accounting standards with the International stan

41、dards and by global players. They had to have a fresh look into their balance sheet and analyze them critically in the light of the prudential norms of income recognition and provisioning that were stipulated by the regu

42、lator, based on Narasimhan</p><p>　　Loans and Advances as assets of the bank play an important part in gross earnings and net profits of banks. The share of advances in the total assets of the banks forms mo

43、re than 60 percent7 and as such it is the backbone of banking structure. Bank lending is very crucial for it make possible the financing of agricultural, industrial and commercial activities of the country. The strength

44、and soundness of the banking system primarily depends upon health of the advances. In other words, improvemen</p><p>　　NPAs are an inevitable burden on the banking industry. Hence the success of a bank depen

45、ds upon methods of managing NPAs and keeping them within tolerance level, of late, several institutional mechanisms have been developed in India to deal with NPAs and there has also been tightening of legal provisions. P

46、erhaps more importantly, effective management of NPAs requires an appropriate internal checks and balances system in a bank9.</p><p>　　In this background, this chapter is designed to give an outline of trend

47、s in NPAs in Indian banking industry vis-à-vis other countries and highlight the importance of NPAs management. NPA is an advance where payment of interest or repayment of installment of principal (in case of Term l

48、oans) or both remains unpaid for a period of 90 days10 (new norms with effect from 31st March, 2004) or more.</p><p>　　2.2 Trends in NPA levels:</p><p>　　The study has been carried out using the

49、 RBI reports on banks (Annual Financial Reports), information / data obtained from the banks and discussion with bank officials. For assessing comparative position on CARR, NPAs and their recoveries in all scheduled bank

50、s viz., Public sector Banks, Private sector banks were perused to identify the level of NPAs.</p><p>　　The Table 2.1 lists the level of non-performing assets as percentage of advances of pubic sector banks a

51、nd private sector banks. An analysis of NPAs of different banks groups indicates, the public sector banks hold larger share of NPAs during the year 1993-94 and gradually decreased to 9.36 percent in the year 2003. On the

52、 contrary, the private sector banks show fluctuating trend with starting at 6.23 percent in the year 1994-95 rising upto 10.44 percent in year 1998 and decreased to 8.08 percen</p><p>　　2.3 International com

53、parison of NPA levles:</p><p>　　Comparison of the problem loan levels in the Indian banking system vis-à-vis those in other countries, particularly those in developed economies, is often made, more so i

54、n the context of the opening up of our financial sector. The data in respect of NPAs level of banking system available for countries like USA, Japan, Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan & Malaysia reveal that it ranged from 1 p

55、ercent to 8.1 percent during 1993-94, 0.9 percent to 5.5 percent during 1994-95, 0.6 to 3.0 percent during 2000 as</p><p>　　The NPAs level in Japan, for example is at 3.3 percent of total loans, it is 3.1 pe

56、rcent in Hong Kong, 7.6 percent in Thailand, 11.2 percent in Indonesia, and 8.2 percent in Malaysia during 94-95, whereas the corresponding figure for India is very high at 19.5 percent12. </p><p>　　Accordin

57、g to Ernst & Young13, the actual level of NPAs of banks in India is around $40 billion, much higher than the government own estimates of $16.7 billion 14 . This difference is largely due to the discrepancy in the acc

58、ounting of NPAs followed by India and rest of the world. According to Ernst & Young, the accounting norms in India are less stringent than those of the developed economies. Further more, Indian banks also have the te

59、ndency to extend past due loans. Considering India’ s GDP of</p><p>　　2.4 Reasons for NPAs in India:</p><p>　　An internal study conducted by RBI16 shows that in the order of prominence, the foll

60、owing factors contribute to NPAs.</p><p>　　Internal Factors:</p><p>　　* diversion of funds for</p><p>　　- expansion / diversification / modernization</p><p>　　- taking

61、up new projects</p><p>　　- helping promoting associate concerns</p><p>　　* time / cost overrun during the project implementation stage</p><p>　　* business (product, marketing etc) f

62、ailure</p><p>　　* inefficiency in management</p><p>　　* slackness in Credit Management and monitoring</p><p>　　* inappropriate technology / technical problems</p><p>　　

63、* lack of co-ordination among lenders.</p><p>　　External Factors:</p><p>　　* recession</p><p>　　* input / power shortage</p><p>　　* price escalation</p><p>

64、;　　* exchange rate fluctuation</p><p>　　* accident and natural calamities etc.</p><p>　　* changes in government policies in excise / import duties, pollution control</p><p>　　orders

65、 etc.</p><p>　　2.5 Conclusion:</p><p>　　Asset quality is one of the important parameters based on which the performance of a bank is assessed by the regulation and the public. Some of the areas

66、where the Indian banks identified to for better NPA management like credit risk management, special investigative audit, negotiated settlement, internal checks & systems for early indication of NPAs etc.,</p>

67、<p>　　3. MANAGEMENT OF CREDIT RISK - A PROACTIVE APPROACH</p><p>　　3.1 Introduction:</p><p>　　Risk is the potentiality that both the expected and unexpected events may have an adverse impac

68、t on the bank’ s capital or earnings. The expected loss is to be borne by the borrower and hence is taken care by adequately pricing the products through risk premium and reserves created out of the earnings. It is the a

69、mount expected to be lost due to changes in credit quality resulting in default. Whereas, the unexpected loss on account of individual exposure and the whole portfolio is entirely is to</p><p>　　Banks are co

70、nfronted with various kinds of financial and non-financial risks viz., credit, market, interest rate, foreign exchange, liquidity, equity price, legal, regulatory, reputation, operational etc. These risks are highly inte

71、rdependent and events that affect one area of risk can have ramifications for a range of other risk categories. Thus, top management of banks should attach considerable importance to improve the ability to identify measu

72、re, monitor and control the overall level of ris</p><p>　　3.2 Credit Risk:</p><p>　　The major risk banks face is credit risk. It follows that the major risk banks must measure, manage and accept

73、 is credit or default risk. It is the uncertainty associated with borrower’ s loan repayment. For most people in commercial banking, lending represents the heart of the Industry. Loans dominate asset holding at most bank

74、s and generate the largest share of operating income. Loans are the dominant asset in most banks’ portfolios, comprising from 50 to 70 percent of total assets17.</p><p><b>　　商業(yè)銀行風險管理</b></p>

75、;<p>　?。ㄒ砸粋€公共和私營部門的銀行為例）</p><p><b>　　序言：</b></p><p><b>　　風險管理</b></p><p>　　銀行業(yè)的未來無疑將落在風險管理力度上。只有已經(jīng)擁有有效的風險管理系統(tǒng)的這些銀行才能在市場中生存并長遠運行。對信貸風險的有效管理是風險管理的重要組成部分

76、，是長期有效管理銀行機構(gòu)的關(guān)鍵所在。銀行信用風險是最古老且是最大的風險。然而，由于種種原因最近發(fā)生的收購有了更大的意義。這其中最重要的是經(jīng)濟自由化的風，吹在全球范圍內(nèi)。印度也不例外，這對驅(qū)動市場經(jīng)濟起到擺動作用。從而加強國家的內(nèi)部和外部的競爭。這就造成了多重風險和市場波動。一個成功的信用風險管理是明確認識銀行信用狀況的結(jié)論來得出，它是關(guān)于投資組合內(nèi)各項目的貸款風險和違約風險，并達成可能的組合。</p><p>　

77、　信用風險管理的基石是建立一個框架來定義企業(yè)的貸款審批程序，信用風險評級體系，風險調(diào)整后的價格體系，貸款審查機制和全面的報告制度。 </p><p><b>　　1.2研究的意義：</b></p><p>　　基本的貸款業(yè)務對于個別銀行和整體銀行體系來說帶來了麻煩。因此，銀行與與此相關(guān)的行業(yè)作為整體必須有足夠完善的系統(tǒng)來進行個人信用項目評估和風險評估。一般來說，在

78、印度是通過傳統(tǒng)的銀行評估，即運用項目融資工具來計算評估管理能力的最大允許限度，并指定對一個行業(yè)暴露的最高限額。由于將銀行的金融貿(mào)易業(yè)務和風險移動到一個新的高度，需要的是用到更復雜和靈活的工具進行風險評估，監(jiān)測和控制風險。因此，銀行的管理層充分裝備自己，用更科學的方式監(jiān)測和控制風險，努力完善系統(tǒng)評估的能力。</p><p>　　信用風險，即由借款人在默認情況下到期償還借款，其仍然是最需管理的風險。信用風險的優(yōu)勢體現(xiàn)

79、在銀行必須保持針對各種風險的一個側(cè)面來保護經(jīng)濟資本組成。據(jù)估計，信用風險大約占銀行全部風險的70％，剩下的就是與其他兩個主要風險共享，即市場風險（市場價格變化引起的）和業(yè)務風險（銀行內(nèi)部控制故障）。高效借款人（一級借款人）能夠直接通過資本市場而不需受債務路線影響。因此，信貸的路線現(xiàn)在向小借款人（一級二借款人）開放。由于保證金水平下降，銀行無法吸收貸款水平損失。目前已經(jīng)很少大力發(fā)展可確認和計量風險的方法。大部分的銀行已經(jīng)開發(fā)了其借款人的內(nèi)

80、部評級系統(tǒng)，但一直對最終的評級和資產(chǎn)分類等微調(diào)評級制度很少有研究。各行業(yè)特有的風險也不公開地確定和評估，而是有規(guī)律的收集數(shù)據(jù)。在業(yè)內(nèi)，區(qū)域貸款和工業(yè)貸款，通過被提供的一個數(shù)據(jù)可以洞察到未來的進程。</p><p>　　一個更好的和有效的戰(zhàn)略信用風險管理進程是一個更好管理投資信用風險的途徑。除了以上風險模型的細節(jié)問題，面臨挑戰(zhàn)的還有在銀行開放更透明的制度下準備和接受改善信貸風險管理，以求迅速地改變市場，經(jīng)營更有效的

81、方法并滿足市場需求和增加股份持有人的能力。</p><p>　　在印度商業(yè)銀行有一個特別是鑒于需要的戰(zhàn)略方針為信用風險管理軟件;</p><p>　　不良資產(chǎn)水平較高的全球基準比較</p><p>　　印度儲備銀行是關(guān)于規(guī)定股息分銷的銀行</p><p>　　經(jīng)修訂的國家行動綱領(lǐng)的水平和CAR規(guī)范</p><p>　　

82、新巴塞爾資本協(xié)定（巴塞爾二）革命</p><p>　　根據(jù)ICRA公司的調(diào)查研究報告，印度的銀行一審計年的估計資不良資產(chǎn)比例已從2003年的9.4%上升至2002年的10.6%.在這些全球化的銀行里，總的估計不良資產(chǎn)比例在2003審計年內(nèi)降低了2.26%個百分點。而凈不良資產(chǎn)比例已有從2003年的5.39%下降至2002年的4.33%。而與之相反的是，印度的銀行的凈不良資產(chǎn)比例在2003年的審計年內(nèi)僅僅降低了0.

83、37%個百分點。在未來，印度這些銀行總的將放在商業(yè)和農(nóng)業(yè)領(lǐng)域的投資會在8,00，000千萬盧比。其中，約為75,000千萬盧比，總投資的9.4%將會是壞賬和呆賬。整個印度銀行業(yè)各類投資不良資產(chǎn)規(guī)模已有1,00，000千萬盧比，占了整個印度年GDP的6%。</p><p>　　印度銀行（央行）目前已經(jīng)宣布任何銀行將不得支付超過33.33%的紅利。而且他還進一步提出，只有銀行的不良資產(chǎn)比例小于3%，同時擁有充足的存款

84、，準備金率在過去兩年當中超過11%才有資格在沒有得到印度銀行允許下發(fā)放紅利。這一措施將有助于加強印度國內(nèi)銀行的資產(chǎn)平衡率。這些銀行必須提供他們利潤的完備信息證明以使凈不良資產(chǎn)比例降低到3%以下。</p><p>　　資產(chǎn)不良率（NPA） 是信貸風險的首要指標，而資金充分率(CAR)是另一項重要指標。CAR被認為是重要指標是因為它是平衡信貸流失的重要指標，它必須達到由印度銀行規(guī)定的9%比例。從國際上各類不斷完善以確

85、保銀行透明度越來越高的方法來看，由2004年3月31日決定在年底將采用“90天或以上”定為資產(chǎn)不良率的衡量方法。</p><p>　　新巴塞爾資本適足公約將在2006年底開始生效，所有的銀行監(jiān)督機構(gòu)將納入該體系內(nèi)。包括國內(nèi)銀行，國際銀行業(yè)將在未來數(shù)十年內(nèi)納入其中。作為印度銀行體系監(jiān)管者的印度銀行已經(jīng)對該加強管理體系表現(xiàn)出的濃厚的興趣，而一些私人銀行也已經(jīng)積極回應，并希望能夠通過以國際上最好的方法來更好的衡量他們自

86、身。</p><p>　　1.3信貸風險管理（CRM）的動態(tài)：</p><p>　　從世界范圍來看，信用風險已被證明是金融機構(gòu)面臨的所有風險中最至關(guān)重要的。1984年前新英格蘭存在62個銀行，1989年至1992年不到58個，從新英格蘭的銀行倒閉的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，銀行貸款及墊款沒有得到及時償還。這標志著信貸風險管理中的作用，因此，它構(gòu)成了目前的研究分析的基礎(chǔ)。</p><p&

87、gt;　　研究人員和風險管理從業(yè)人員不斷試圖改善目前的技術(shù)，最近幾年，在藝術(shù)和信用風險計量和管理科學方面取得了巨大進步。在這領(lǐng)域的進展已導致許多形式的信貸風險管理的傳統(tǒng)限制，以及當前國際清算銀行（BIS）監(jiān)管模式的局限性。即使在實行定期微調(diào)信貸政策或簡化信貸程序的銀行，要正確識別風險、集中財力并進行量化的風險程度，確定多樣化的機會，平衡其投資組合中風險回報所占的比例等等對于風險管理者來講仍然是一個極大的挑戰(zhàn)！</p>&l

88、t;p>　　這兩個不同的信用風險管理方面可以很容易地被識別，即預防和治療措施。預防措施包括風險評估，風險計量和風險定價，早期預警系統(tǒng)為挑選未來默認的早期信號和更好的信貸資產(chǎn)組合多樣化。另一方面，治療措施的目標是盡量通過這些步驟，例如證券，金融衍生工具交易，風險共擔，執(zhí)法等來減少貸款損失。人們普遍認為，一盎司的預防勝過一磅的治療。因此，研究的重點是在與新巴塞爾資本協(xié)議規(guī)定的規(guī)范調(diào)整的預防措施。</p><p>

89、;　　這項研究還指出兩個影響銀行信貸風險管理實踐的基礎(chǔ)產(chǎn)業(yè)的發(fā)展情況——新巴塞爾資本協(xié)定與風險性監(jiān)管。除了強調(diào)巴塞爾協(xié)議新形勢下的信貸風險管理規(guī)定的突出特點外，還企圖印度銀行專業(yè)人員根據(jù)協(xié)議編纂各種應對建議。同樣，印度儲備銀行提出了基于被檢查風險的監(jiān)管（RBS），以掌握其方向和執(zhí)行問題。</p><p><b>　　1.4研究目標：</b></p><p>　　本研究

90、試圖實現(xiàn)以下目標：</p><p>　　分析商業(yè)銀行不良資產(chǎn)在印度的趨勢。</p><p>　　分析在后自由化時期，信貸資產(chǎn)組合多樣化的趨勢。</p><p>　　公共部門銀行的不良資產(chǎn)與私人銀行的多元化投資組合之間的關(guān)系研究。</p><p>　　剖析和分析公共部門對私營部門的集中風險。</p><p>　　評價公共

91、部門銀行相對于私人銀行的信貸風險管理措施。</p><p>　　審查新巴塞爾資本協(xié)定規(guī)范及其對印度商業(yè)銀行的信用風險管理做法可能產(chǎn)生的影響。</p><p>　　審查基于風險的監(jiān)管，加強對銀行信貸風險管理做法方面的作用。</p><p>　　建議改善印度商業(yè)銀行實行信貸風險管理的的措施梗概。</p><p><b>　　不良資產(chǎn)問題

92、</b></p><p><b>　　2.1簡介：</b></p><p>　　在90年代初，Liberlization與全球化政府對印度金融部門拋出了許多挑戰(zhàn)。除其他事項外，銀行分別設(shè)置其國際標準和全球性企業(yè)的會計標準。他們有對其的早餐負債表重新審視，并基于Narasimhan監(jiān)管委員會建議來嚴格分析確認收入的審慎監(jiān)管，和用規(guī)范的角度來看待他們的供應。&

93、lt;/p><p>　　貸款和墊款作為銀行資產(chǎn)總額在銀行的凈盈利和利潤上發(fā)揮著重要組成部分的作用。并在銀行的總資產(chǎn)份額形式上上升60%以上，因此它是銀行體系的骨干。銀行貸款非常重要就在于它有可能幫該國的農(nóng)業(yè)，工業(yè)和商業(yè)活動提供資助。銀行體系的實力和穩(wěn)健主要取決于有關(guān)貸款的健康。換句話說，資產(chǎn)質(zhì)量的提高是加強對銀行工作和改善其財政狀況的根本。預計2006年至2008年的國家行動綱領(lǐng)突出說明國內(nèi)大多數(shù)國家的公共部門銀行完

94、全出局。</p><p>　　國家行動綱領(lǐng)是對銀行業(yè)的必然負擔。因此，一家印度已發(fā)展到處理不良資產(chǎn)和不良資產(chǎn)的管理水平保持在公差后期的銀行的成功取決于印度的一些體制機制，方法和出現(xiàn)的法律規(guī)定的緊縮。也許更重要的是，不良資產(chǎn)的有效管理要求在銀行開立適當?shù)膬?nèi)部制衡制度。</p><p>　　在此背景下，這一章是為了給印度銀行業(yè)對其他國家不良資產(chǎn)的趨勢綱要和突出不良資產(chǎn)管理的重要性。國家行動綱領(lǐng)

95、是一個先進的地方利益或本金（在定期貸款情況下），或依然為90天分期償還款項（新規(guī)范至2004年3月30日起生效）或更長時間未付。</p><p>　　2.2國家行動綱領(lǐng)的趨勢程度：</p><p>　　這項研究是使用印度儲備銀行的報告（年度財務報告），信息/從銀行及銀行官員討論獲得的數(shù)據(jù)來進行的。從卡爾，國家行動綱領(lǐng)和在所預定銀行的回收率來評估評估其相對位置，以確定公共部門銀行和被仔細閱讀

96、的私人銀行的國家行動綱領(lǐng)的水平。</p><p>　　表2.1列出了公共部門銀行和私人銀行的不良資產(chǎn)的貸款比率水平。不同銀行的國際行動綱領(lǐng)的不良資產(chǎn)分析表明，公共部門銀行在1993—94年期間持有較大的國際行動綱領(lǐng)的份額，并在2003年逐步降至9.36%。相反，私營部門銀行表明波動起薪點為1994-95年的6.23%上升至1998年的10.44%，到2002-03年度下降至8.08%。</p>&l

97、t;p>　　2.3 國際上國家行動綱領(lǐng)水平的比較：</p><p>　　印度的銀行體系相對于那些國家，特別是發(fā)達經(jīng)濟體的其他國家的貸款水平問題的比較，更何況在我國金融業(yè)對外開放方面?？蓪τ谙衩绹毡?，香港，韓國，臺灣，馬來西亞等國在銀行體系的不良資產(chǎn)水平方面的數(shù)據(jù)顯示，1993-94年期間介于1%至8.1%，在1994-95年度為0.9%至5.5%，相對于2000年23.6%，印度銀行為0.6%-3%，今

98、年為19.5%和14%。</p><p>　　例如，1994-95年間，日本的國家行動綱領(lǐng)級別，總貸款的3.3%在其本國，3.1%在香港，7.6%在泰國，11.2%在印度尼西亞，8.2%在馬來西亞，而印度的相應數(shù)字是非常高的，占19.5%。</p><p>　　據(jù)安永會計師事務所指出印度的銀行不良資產(chǎn)的實際水平約為400億美元，遠高出政府16.7億美元。這種差異主要是在于國家行動綱領(lǐng)，其次

99、是印度和世界其他地區(qū)的會計差異。此外，安永會計事務所還指出，印度的會計準則都低于發(fā)達經(jīng)濟體。當然，考慮到印度約4700億美元的國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值，國家行動綱領(lǐng)約8%的國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值，較許多亞洲經(jīng)濟大國的好，所以印度銀行的逾期貸款也有更進一步的擴大趨勢。在一個總體水平上，中國的國家行動綱領(lǐng)是GDP的45%左右，而日本是28%左右，馬來西亞的國家行動綱領(lǐng)的水平大約為42%。在2000至2002年間，亞洲的國家行動綱領(lǐng)的比例從1.5萬億美元增加到2萬

100、億美元，增加了33%。它占亞洲國家的國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值的29%。由于按照安永以及2002年亞洲自行處理不良貸款的報告，全球經(jīng)濟放緩和政府方面等問題，增加了國家行動綱領(lǐng)的相關(guān)問題。然而，從積極的角度來看，印度的條例對證券化與金融資產(chǎn)重組以及安全利益執(zhí)法行動是向正確的方向邁出的一步。這個條例有助于銀行通過良好的業(yè)務集中來消除不良貸款業(yè)務。</p><p>　　2.4印度國家行動綱領(lǐng)的原因：</p><p