化學(xué)專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯3

1、<p>　　Foreign material：</p><p>　　Chemical Industry</p><p>　　1.Origins of the Chemical Industry </p><p>　　Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations,

2、 the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by ot

3、her industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals i</p>

4、<p>　　Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the de

5、velopment and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene,

6、polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.</p><p>　　The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of differe

7、nt chemicals which the general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e

8、.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce. </p><p>　　2. Definition of the Chemical Industry</p><p>　　At the turn of t

9、he century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric

10、 acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily conve

11、rted into them. The difficulty cones in deci</p><p>　　It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition

12、of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is import

13、ant to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources. </p><p>　　3. The Need for Chemical Industry</p><p>　　The chemical industry is concerned wit

14、h converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our lives more comfor

15、table or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw materi

16、al plus processing cos</p><p>　　It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the ran

17、ge of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the indu

18、stry’s contribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) a</p><p>　　(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least thr

19、ee ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops duri

20、ng modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by produc</p><p>　　(2)Health

21、. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g

22、. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.</p><p>　　(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarka

23、ble. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel dev

24、elopments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” them to the fiber has resulted in a tremendo</p><p>　　(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution

25、of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not nee

26、d painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.</p><p>　　Plastics and polymers have made a

27、 considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls an

28、d footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.</p><p>　　Likewise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives li

29、ke anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating o

30、ils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proporti</p><p>　　So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical

31、industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level an

32、d sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical Industries </p><p>　　One of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world h

33、as been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals

34、. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff sa</p><p>　　The che

35、mical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of

36、chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.</p><p>　　Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a

37、 few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of thi

38、s size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.</p><p>　　The major c

39、hemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outloo

40、k for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which a

41、re already operating there.</p><p><b>　　化學(xué)工業(yè)</b></p><p><b>　　1.化學(xué)工業(yè)的起源</b></p><p>　　盡管化學(xué)品的使用可以追溯到古代文明時代，我們所謂的現(xiàn)代化學(xué)工業(yè)的發(fā)展卻是非常近代（才開始的）?？梢哉J為它起源于工業(yè)革命其間，大約在1800年，并發(fā)

42、展成為為其它工業(yè)部門提供化學(xué)原料的產(chǎn)業(yè)。比如制肥皂所用的堿，棉布生產(chǎn)所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造業(yè)所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我們會注意到所有這些都是無機物。有機化學(xué)工業(yè)的開始是在十九世紀六十年代以William Henry Perkin 發(fā)現(xiàn)第一種合成染料—苯胺紫并加以開發(fā)利用為標志的。20世紀初，德國花費大量資金用于實用化學(xué)方面的重點研究，到1914年，德國的化學(xué)工業(yè)在世界化學(xué)產(chǎn)品市場上占有75%的份額。這要歸因于新染料的發(fā)現(xiàn)以及硫酸的接觸

43、法生產(chǎn)和氨的哈伯生產(chǎn)工藝的發(fā)展。而后者需要較大的技術(shù)突破使得化學(xué)反應(yīng)第一次可以在非常高的壓力條件下進行。這方面所取得的成績對德國很有幫助。特別是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆發(fā)，對以氮為基礎(chǔ)的化合物的需求飛速增長。這種深刻的改變一直持續(xù)到戰(zhàn)后</p><p>　　1940年以來，化學(xué)工業(yè)一直以引人注目的速度飛速發(fā)展。盡管這種發(fā)展的速度近年來已大大減慢?；瘜W(xué)工業(yè)的發(fā)展由于1950年以來石油化學(xué)領(lǐng)域的研究和開發(fā)大部

44、分在有機化學(xué)方面取得。石油化工在60年代和70年代的迅猛發(fā)展主要是由于人們對于合成高聚物如聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龍、聚脂和環(huán)氧樹脂的需求巨大增加。</p><p>　　今天的化學(xué)工業(yè)已經(jīng)是制造業(yè)中有著許多分支的部門，并且在制造業(yè)中起著核心的作用。它生產(chǎn)了數(shù)千種不同的化學(xué)產(chǎn)品，而人們通常只接觸到終端產(chǎn)品或消費品。這些產(chǎn)品被購買是因為他們具有某些性質(zhì)適合（人們）的一些特別的用途，例如，用于盆的不粘涂層或一種殺蟲劑。這些化

45、學(xué)產(chǎn)品歸根到底是由于它們能產(chǎn)生的作用而被購買的。</p><p><b>　　2.化學(xué)工業(yè)的定義</b></p><p>　　在本世紀初，要定義什么是化學(xué)工業(yè)是不太困難的，因為那時所生產(chǎn)的化學(xué)品是很有限的，而且是非常清楚的化學(xué)品，例如，燒堿，硫酸。然而現(xiàn)在有數(shù)千種化學(xué)產(chǎn)品被生產(chǎn)，從一些原料物質(zhì)像用于制備許多的半成品的石油，到可以直接作為消費品或很容易轉(zhuǎn)化為消費品的商品

46、。困難在于如何決定在一些特殊的生產(chǎn)過程中哪一個環(huán)節(jié)不再屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動范疇。舉一個特殊的例子來描述一下這種困境。乳劑漆含有聚氯乙烯/聚醋酸乙烯。顯然，氯乙烯（或醋酸乙烯）的合成以及聚合是化學(xué)活動。然而，如果這種漆，包括高聚物，它的配制和混合是由一家制造配料的跨國化學(xué)公司完成的話，那它仍然是屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)呢還是應(yīng)當歸屬于裝飾工業(yè)中去呢？</p><p>　　因此，很明顯，由于化學(xué)工業(yè)經(jīng)營的種類很多并在很多領(lǐng)域與其它

47、工業(yè)有密切的聯(lián)系，所以不能對它下一個簡單的定義。相反的每一個收集和出版制造工業(yè)統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)的官方機構(gòu)都會對如何屆定哪一類操作為化學(xué)工業(yè)有自己的定義。當比較來自不同途徑的統(tǒng)計資料時，記住這點是很重要的。</p><p>　　3.對化學(xué)工業(yè)的需要</p><p>　　化學(xué)工業(yè)涉及到原材料的轉(zhuǎn)化，如石油 首先轉(zhuǎn)化為化學(xué)中間體，然后轉(zhuǎn)化為數(shù)量眾多的其它化學(xué)產(chǎn)品。這些產(chǎn)品再被用來生產(chǎn)消費品，這些消費品可

48、以使我們的生活更為舒適或者作藥物維持人類的健康或生命。在生產(chǎn)過程的每一個階段，都有價值加到產(chǎn)品上面，只要這些附加的價值超過原材料和加工成本之和，這個加工就產(chǎn)生了利潤。而這正是化學(xué)工業(yè)要達到的目的。</p><p>　　在這樣的一本教科書中提出：“我們需要化學(xué)工業(yè)嗎？”這樣一個問題是不是有點奇怪呢？然而，先回答下面幾個問題將給我們提供一些信息：（1）化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動范圍，（2）化學(xué)工業(yè)對我們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹挠绊?，?）社會

49、對化學(xué)工業(yè)的需求有多大。在回答這些問題的時候我們的思路將要考慮化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足和改善我們的主要需求方面所做的貢獻。是些什么需求呢？很顯然，食物和健康是放在第一位的。其它我們要考慮的按順序是衣物、住所、休閑和旅行。</p><p>　　(1)食物。化學(xué)工業(yè)對糧食生產(chǎn)所做的巨大貢獻至少有三個方面。第一，提供大量可以獲得的肥料以補充由于密集耕作被農(nóng)作物生長時所帶走的營養(yǎng)成分。（主要是氮、磷和鉀）。第二，生產(chǎn)農(nóng)作物保護產(chǎn)品

50、，如殺蟲劑，它可以顯著減少害蟲所消耗的糧食數(shù)量。第三，生產(chǎn)獸藥保護家禽免遭疾病或其它感染的侵害。</p><p>　?。?）健康。我們都很了解化學(xué)工業(yè)中制藥這一塊在維護我們的身體健康甚至延長壽命方面所做出的巨大貢獻，例如，用抗生素治療細菌感染，用β-抗血栓降低血壓。</p><p>　?。?）衣物。在傳統(tǒng)的衣服面料上，現(xiàn)代合成纖維性質(zhì)的改善也是非常顯著的。用聚脂如滌綸或聚酰胺如尼龍所制作的

51、T恤、上衣、襯衫抗皺、可機洗，曬干自挺或免燙，也比天然面料便宜。與此同時，現(xiàn)代合成染料開發(fā)和染色技術(shù)的改善使得時裝設(shè)計師們有大量的色彩可以利用。的確他們幾乎利用了可見光譜中所有的色調(diào)和色素。事實上如果某種顏色沒有現(xiàn)成的，只要這種產(chǎn)品確有市場，就可以很容易地通過對現(xiàn)有的色彩進行結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整而獲得。這一領(lǐng)域中另一些重要進展是不褪色，即在洗滌衣物時染料不會被洗掉。</p><p>　?。?）住所，休閑和旅游。講到住所方面現(xiàn)

52、代合成高聚物的貢獻是巨大的。塑料正在取代像木材一類的傳統(tǒng)建筑材料，因為它們更輕，免維護（即它們可以抵抗風(fēng)化，不需油漆）。另一些高聚物，比如，脲甲醛和聚脲，是非常重要的絕緣材料可以減少熱量損失因而減少能量損耗。</p><p>　　塑料和高聚物的應(yīng)用對休閑活動有很重要的影響，從體育跑道的全天候人造篷頂，足球和網(wǎng)球的經(jīng)緯線，到球拍的尼龍線還有高爾夫球的元件，還有制造足球的合成材料。</p><p&

53、gt;　　多年來化學(xué)工業(yè)對旅游方面所作的貢獻也有很大的提高。一些添加劑如抗氧化劑的開發(fā)和發(fā)動機油粘度指數(shù)改進使汽車日產(chǎn)維修期限從3000英里延長到6000英里再到12000英里。研發(fā)工作還改進了潤滑油和油脂的性能，并得到了更好的剎車油。塑料和高聚物對整個汽車業(yè)的貢獻的比例是驚人的，源于這些材料—擋板，輪胎，坐墊和涂層等等—超過40%。</p><p>　　很顯然簡單地看一下化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足我們的主要需求方面所做的貢

54、獻就可以知道，沒有化工產(chǎn)品人類社會的生活將會多么困難。事實上，一個國家的發(fā)展水平可以通過其化學(xué)工業(yè)的生產(chǎn)水平和精細程度來加以判斷。</p><p>　　發(fā)達國家化學(xué)工業(yè)飛速發(fā)展的一個重要原因就是它在研究和開發(fā)方面的投入和投資。通常是銷售收入的5%，而研究密集型分支如制藥，投入則加倍。要強調(diào)這里我們所提出的百分數(shù)不是指利潤而是指銷售收入，也就是說全部回收的錢，其中包括要付出原材料費，企業(yè)管理費，員工工資等等。過去這

55、筆巨大的投資支付得很好，使得許多有用的和有價值的產(chǎn)品被投放市場，包括一些合成高聚物如尼龍和聚脂，藥品和殺蟲劑。盡管近年來進入市場的新產(chǎn)品大為減少，而且在衰退時期研究部門通常是最先被裁減的部門，在研究和開發(fā)方面的投資仍然保持在較高的水平。</p><p>　　化學(xué)工業(yè)是高技術(shù)工業(yè)，它需要利用電子學(xué)和工程學(xué)的最新成果。計算機被廣泛應(yīng)用，從化工廠的自動控制，到新化合物結(jié)構(gòu)的分子模擬，再到實驗室分析儀器的控制。</

56、p><p>　　一個制造廠的生產(chǎn)量很不一樣，精細化工領(lǐng)域每年只有幾噸，而巨型企業(yè)如化肥廠和石油化工廠有可能高達500,000噸。后者需要巨大的資金投入，因為一個這樣規(guī)模的工廠要花費2億5千萬美元，再加上自動控制設(shè)備的普遍應(yīng)用，就不難解釋為什么化工廠是資金密集型企業(yè)而不是勞動力密集型企業(yè)。</p><p>　　大部分化學(xué)公司是真正的跨國公司，他們在世界上的許多國家進行銷售和開發(fā)市場，他們在許多國