簡介：THECOSTOFBUILDINGSTRUCTURE1INTRODUCTIONTHEARTOFARCHITECTURALDESIGNWASCHARACTERIZEDASONEOFDEALINGCOMPREHENSIVELYWITHACOMPLEXSETOFPHYSICALANDNONPHYSICALDESIGNDETERMINANTSSTRUCTURALCONSIDERATIONSWERECASTASIMPORTANTPHYSICALDETERMINANTSTHATSHOULDBEDEALTWITHINAHIERARCHICALFASHIONIFTHEYARETOHAVEASIGNIFICANTIMPACTONSPATIALORGANIZATIONANDENVIRONMENTALCONTROLDESIGNTHINKINGTHEECONOMICALASPECTOFBUILDINGREPRESENTSANONPHYSICALSTRUCTURALCONSIDERATIONTHAT,INFINALANALYSIS,MUSTALSOBECONSIDEREDIMPORTANTCOSTCONSIDERATIONSAREINCERTAINWAYSACONSTRAINTTOCREATIVEDESIGNBUTTHISNEEDNOTBESOIFSOMETHINGISKNOWNOFTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENSTRUCTURALANDCONSTRUCTIVEDESIGNOPTIONSANDTHEIRCOSTOFIMPLEMENTATION,ITISREASONABLETOBELIEVETHATCREATIVITYCANBEENHANCEDTHISHASBEENCONFIRMEDBYTHEAUTHORS’OBSERVATIONTHATMOSTENHANCEDTHISHASBEENCONFIRMEDBYTHEAUTHORS’OBSERVATIONTHATMOSTCREATIVEDESIGNINNOVATIONSSUCCEEDUNDERCOMPETITIVEBIDDINGANDNOTBECAUSEOFUNUSUALOWNERAFFLUENCEASTHEFEWPUBLICIZEDCASESOFEXTRAVAGANCEMIGHTLEADONETOBELIEVEONECOULDEVENSAYTHATADESIGNERWHOISTRULYCREATIVEWILLPRODUCEARCHITECTURALEXCELLENCEWITHINTHECONSTRAINTSOFECONOMYESPECIALLYTODAY,WEFINDTHATTHEREISANEEDTORECOGNIZETHATELEGANCEANDECONOMYCANBECOMESYNONYMOUSCONCEPTSTHEREFORE,INTHISCHAPTERWEWILLSETFORTHABRIEFEXPLANATIONOFTHEPARAMETERSOFCOSTANALYSISANDTHEMEANSBYWHICHDESIGNERSMAYEVALUATETHEOVERALLECONOMICIMPLICATIONSOFTHEIRSTRUCTURALANDARCHITECTURALDESIGNTHINKINGTHECOSTOFSTRUCTUREALONECANBEMEASUREDRELATIVETOTHETOTALCOSTOFBUILDINGCONSTRUCTIONOR,SINCETHETOTALCONSTRUCTIONCOSTISBUTAPARTOFATOTALPROJECTCOST,ONECOULDINCLUDEADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONFORLAND10～20PERCENT,FINANCEANDINTEREST100～200PERCENT,TAXESANDMAINTENANCECOSTSONTHEORDEROF20PERCENTBUTADISCUSSIONOFTHESESOCALLEDARCHITECTURALCOSTSISBEYONDTHESCOPEOFTHISBOOK,ANDWEWILLFOCUSONTHECOSTOFCONSTRUCTIONONLYONTHEAVERAGE,PURELYSTRUCTURALCOSTSACCOUNTFORABOUT25PERCENTOFTOTALCONSTRUCTIONCOSTS,THISISSOBECAUSEITHASBEENTRADITIONALTODISCRIMINATEBETWEENPERHAPSKEEPINMINDHOWTHEACTUALCOSTOFASTRUCTUREISFINALLYPRICEDANDMADEUPTHUS,THEPERCENTAVERAGESSTATEDABOVEAREOBVIOUSLYCRUDE,BUTTHEYCANSUFFICETOINTRODUCETHENATUREOFTHECOSTPICTURETHEFOLLOWINGSECTIONSWILLDISCUSSTHERANGEOFTHESEAVERAGESANDTHENPROCEEDTOADISCUSSIONOFSQUAREFOOTAGECOSTSANDVOLUMEBASEDESTIMATESFORUSEINROUGHAPPROXIMATIONOFTHECOSTOFBUILDINGASTRUCTURALSYSTEM2PERCENTAGEESTIMATESTHETYPEOFBUILDINGPROJECTMAYINDICATETHERANGEOFPERCENTAGESTHATCANBEALLOCATEDTOSTRUCTURALANDOTHERCOSTSASMIGHTBEEXPECTED,HIGHLYDECORATIVEORSYMBOLICBUILDINGSWOULDNORMALLYDEMANDTHELOWESTPERCENTAGEOFSTRUCTURALCOSTSASCOMPAREDTOTOTALCONSTRUCTIONCOSTINTHISCASETHESTRUCTURALCOSTSMIGHTDROPTO10～15PERCENTOFTHETOTALBUILDINGCOSTBECAUSEMOREMONEYISALLOCATEDTOTHESOCALLEDARCHITECTURALCOSTSONCEAGAINTHISIMPLIESTHATTHESYMBOLICCOMPONENTSARECONCEIVEDINDEPENDENTOFBASICSTRUCTURALREQUIREMENTSHOWEVER,WHERESTRUCTUREANDSYMBOLISMAREMOREORLESSSYNTHESIZED,ASWITHACHURCHORCATHEDRAL,THESTRUCTURALSYSTEMCOSTCANBEEXPECTEDTOBESOMEWHATHIGHER,SAY,15AND20PERCENTORMOREATTHEOTHERENDOFTHECOSTSCALEARETHEVERYSIMPLEANDNONSYMBOLICINDUSTRIALBUILDINGS,SUCHASWAREHOUSESANDGARAGESINTHESECASES,THENONSTRUCTURALSYSTEMS,SUCHASINTERIORPARTITIONWALLSANDCEILINGS,ASWILLASMECHANICALSYSTEMS,ARENORMALLYMINIMAL,ASISDECORATION,ANDTHEREFORETHESTRUCTURALCOSTSCANACCOUNTFOR60TO70PERCENT,EVEN80PERCENTOFTHETOTALCOSTOFCONSTRUCTIONBUILDINGSSUCHASMEDIUMRISEOFFICEANDAPARTMENTBUILDINGS5～10STORIESOCCUPYTHEMEDIANPOSITIONONACOSTSCALEATABOUT25PERCENTFORSTRUCTURELOWANDSHORTSPANBUILDINGSFORCOMMERCEANDHOUSING,SAY,OFTHREEORFOURSTORIESANDWITHSPANSOFSOME20OR30FTANDSIMPLEERECTIONREQUIREMENTS,WILLYIELDSTRUCTURALCOSTSOF15～20PERCENTOFTOTALBUILDINGCOSTSPECIALPERFORMANCEBUILDINGS,SUCHASLABORATORIESANDHOSPITALS,REPRESENTANOTHERCATEGORYTHEYCANREQUIRELONGSPANSANDAMORETHANAVERAGEPORTIONOFTHETOTALCOSTSWILLBEALLOCATEDTOSERVICESIE,30～50PERCENT,WITHABOUT20PERCENTGOINGFORTHEPURELYSTRUCTURALCOSTSTALLOFFICEBUILDING15STORIESORMOREAND/ORLONGSPAN

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芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆膆薅蚃螅莂蒁螞袈膅莇螁羀莀芃螀肂膃薂蝿螂羆薈螈羄芁蒄螇肆肄莀螇螆芀芆螆袈肂薄螅羈羋蒀襖肅肁莆袃螃芆節(jié)袂裊聿蟻袂肇蒞薇袁膀膇蒃袀衿莃荿蒆羂膆芅蒅肄莁薃薅螄膄葿薄袆荿蒞薃羈膂莁薂膀羅蝕薁袀芀薆薀羂肅蒂蕿肅艿莈蕿螄肂芄蚈袇芇薃蚇罿肀葿蚆肁芅蒅蚅袁肈莁蚄羃莄芇蚃肆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簡介：本科畢業(yè)設計外文文獻及譯文文獻、資料題目DESIGNINGAGAINSTFIREOFBULIDING文獻、資料來源期刊文獻、資料發(fā)表（出版）日期2010810院（部）土木工程學院專業(yè)土木工程2THEPURPOSEOFTHISPAPERISTOCONSIDERTHEDESIGNOFBUILDINGSFORFIRESAFETYFROMANENGINEERINGPERSPECTIVEASISCURRENTLYDONEFOROTHERLOADSSUCHASWINDOREARTHQUAKES,WHILSTATTHESAMETIME,PUTTINGSUCHAPPROACHESINTHECONTEXTOFTHECURRENTREGULATORYREQUIREMENTSATTHEOUTSET,ITNEEDSTOBENOTEDTHATDESIGNINGABUILDINGFORFIRESAFETYISFARMORETHANSIMPLYCONSIDERINGTHEBUILDINGSTRUCTUREANDWHETHERITHASSUFFICIENTSTRUCTURALADEQUACYTHISISBECAUSEFIRESCANHAVEADIRECTINFLUENCEONOCCUPANTSVIASMOKEANDHEATANDCANGROWINSIZEANDSEVERITYUNLIKEOTHEREFFECTSIMPOSEDONTHEBUILDINGNOTWITHSTANDINGTHESECOMMENTS,THEFOCUSOFTHISPAPERWILLBELARGELYONDESIGNISSUESASSOCIATEDWITHTHEBUILDINGSTRUCTURETWOSITUATIONSASSOCIATEDWITHABUILDINGAREUSEDFORTHEPURPOSEOFDISCUSSIONTHEMULTISTOREYOFFICEBUILDINGSHOWNINFIGURE1ISSUPPORTEDBYATRANSFERSTRUCTURETHATSPANSOVERASETOFRAILWAYTRACKSITISASSUMEDTHATAWIDERANGEOFRAILTRAFFICUTILISESTHESETRACKSINCLUDINGFREIGHTANDDIESELLOCOMOTIVESTHEFIRSTSITUATIONTOBECONSIDEREDFROMAFIRESAFETYPERSPECTIVEISTHETRANSFERSTRUCTURETHISISTERMEDSITUATION1ANDTHEKEYQUESTIONSAREWHATLEVELOFFIRERESISTANCEISREQUIREDFORTHISTRANSFERSTRUCTUREANDHOWCANTHISBEDETERMINEDTHISSITUATIONHASBEENCHOSENSINCEITCLEARLYFALLSOUTSIDETHENORMALREGULATORYSCOPEOFMOSTBUILDINGREGULATIONSANENGINEERINGSOLUTION,RATHERTHANAPRESCRIPTIVEONEISREQUIREDTHESECONDFIRESITUATIONTERMEDSITUATION2CORRESPONDSTOAFIREWITHINTHEOFFICELEVELSOFTHEBUILDINGANDISCOVEREDBYBUILDINGREGULATIONSTHISSITUATIONISCHOSENBECAUSEITWILLENABLEADISCUSSIONOFENGINEERINGAPPROACHESANDHOWTHESEINTERFACEWITHTHEBUILDINGREGULATIONS–SINCEBOTHENGINEERINGANDPRESCRIPTIVESOLUTIONSAREPOSSIBLE

簡介：字數(shù)英文字數(shù)英文21542154單詞，單詞，1243312433字符；中文字符；中文38493849漢字漢字出處出處KOOROSHKOOROSHG,RHEAG,RHEACFIBERCFIBERREINFORCEDREINFORCEDCONCRETECONCRETEFRCFRCFORFORHIGHHIGHRISERISECONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTIONCASECASESTUDIESJIOPSTUDIESJIOPCONFERENCECONFERENCESERIESSERIESMATERIALSMATERIALSSCIENCESCIENCEANDANDENGINEERING,2017,2721012034ENGINEERING,2017,2721012034外文文獻外文文獻FIBERREINFORCEDCONCRETEFRCFORHIGHRISECONSTRUCTIONCASESTUDIESABSTRACTDUETOITSMATERIALELEMENT,FIBERREINFORCEDCONCRETEFRCCOULDBESTRONGERTHANTRADITIONALCONCRETETHISISDUETOFRCINTERNALMATERIALCOMPOUNDSANDELEMENTSFURTHERMORE,FRCCANALSOSIGNIFICANTLYIMPROVEFLEXURALSTRENGTHWHENCOMPAREDTOTRADITIONALCONCRETETHISIMPROVEMENTINFLEXURALSTRENGTHCANBEVARIEDDEPENDINGONTHEACTUALFIBERSUSEDALTHOUGHNOTNEW,FRCISGRADUALLYGAININGPOPULARITYINTHECONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRY,INPARTICULARFORHIGHRISESTRUCTURESTHISISDUETOITSFLEXURALSTRENGTH,ESPECIALLYFORHIGHSEISMICZONES,ASITWILLPROVIDEABETTERSOLUTIONTHENREINFORCEDCONCRETETHEMAINAIMOFTHISPAPERISTOINVESTIGATETHESTRUCTURALIMPORTANCEOFFRCFORTHEHIGHRISECONSTRUCTIONALTHOUGHTHEREHASBEENNUMEROUSSTUDIESANDLITERATUREINJUSTIFYINGTHEFRCFORGENERALCONSTRUCTIONTHISPAPERWILLCONSIDERITSUSESPECIFICALLYFORHIGHRISECONSTRUCTIONMOREOVER,THISPAPERWILLCLOSELYINVESTIGATEEIGHTCASESTUDIESFROMAUSTRALIANANDUNITEDSTATESASAPARTOFTHEFRCVALIDATIONFORHIGHRISECONSTRUCTIONINDOINGSO,THISPAPERWILLEXAMINETHEIRSTRUCTURALHEALTHMONITORINGSHMTODETERMINETHEIROVERALLSTRUCTURALPERFORMANCE1INTRODUCTIONFRCISANEXAMPLEOFSUCHINNOVATIVEMATERIALENGINEERINGALTHOUGHTHISMATERIALHASBEENUSEDINGENERALCONSTRUCTIONFORSOMETIME,ITSUSEFORHIGHRISECONSTRUCTIONISGRADUALLYINCREASINGINTHEPAST,THEREASONFORTHERELUCTANTUSEOFFRCFORHIGHRISECONSTRUCTIONWASDUETOINDUSTRYSLACKOFTRUSTWITHITSFUNCTIONALITYASPERNORM,MATERIALFUNCTIONALITYISTHEMOSTIMPORTANTFACTORTOCONSIDERWHENASELECTIONISBEINGCARRIEDOUTONEOFTHEMOSTSIGNIFICANTFACETSOFMATERIALFUNCTIONALITYISITSABILITYTOFITTHEPURPOSEWHICHITISREQUIREDTODOASPERTRADITIONALREINFORCEDCONCRETERC,SUCHMATERIALSAREUTILIZEDASLOADBEARINGCOMPONENTSOFTHESTRUCTURESWITHTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEFRC,ITISBELIEVEDTHATTHISMATERIALCANNOTMATCHTHEFUNCTIONALITYOFTHERCHOWEVER,MANYSTUDIESHAVEBEENCONDUCTEDTOSUPPORTTHEOPPOSITETOTHISVIEWFURTHERMORE,WHERELOWLOADBEARINGMATERIALSAREREQUIRED,FRCCANEASILYBEEMPLOYEDTHEINTRIGUINGASPECTOFFRCISTHEACTUALTYPEOFFIBERWHICHISBEINGUSEDASTHEREAREMANYFIBERSTOSELECTFROM,SUCHASPOLYMER,STEEL,GLASSANDEVENNATURALFIBERSVEGETABLEORIGINFIGURES2AAND2BBELOWILLUSTRATESTEELANDGLASSFIBERSFIGURE2ASTEELFIBERFIGURE2BGLASSFIBERMOREOVER,ANOTHERIMPORTANTASPECTOFFRCISITSCOMPOSITIONPROGRESSION,INCLUDINGTHEINTERFACEANDBONDINGPROCESSES,BOTHOFWHICHAREDISCUSSEDFURTHERINTHEFOLLOWINGSECTION

簡介：本科畢業(yè)設計外文文獻及譯文文獻、資料題目BUILDINGCONSTRUCTIONCONCRETECRACKOFPREVENTIONANDPROCESSING文獻、資料來源期刊文獻、資料發(fā)表（出版）日期20091112院（部）土木工程學院專業(yè)土木工程2ACCEPTABLEINCERTAINLYOFTHESCOPEJUSTNEEDTOADOPTVALIDOFMEASUREWILLITENDANGERDEGREECONTROLATCERTAINOFSCOPEINSIDETHEREINFORCEDCONCRETENORMISALSOEXPLICITPROVISIONSOMESTRUCTUREATPLACEOFDISSIMILARITYUNDERTHECONDITIONALLOWEXISTENCECERTAINTHECRACKOFWIDTHBUTATUNDERCONSTRUCTIONSHOULDASFARASPOSSIBLEADOPTAVALIDMEASURECONTROLCRACKCREATION,MAKETHESTRUCTUREDONTAPPEARCRACKPOSSIBLYORASFARASPOSSIBLEDECREASECRACKOFAMOUNTANDWIDTH,PARTICULARLYWANTTOASFARASPOSSIBLEAVOIDHARMFULCRACKOFEMERGENCE,INSUREENGINEERINGQUALITYTHUSCONCRETECRACKCREATIONOFTHEREASONBEALOTOFANDHAVEALREADYTRANSFORMEDTOCAUSEOFCRACKSUCHASTEMPERATUREVARIETY,CONSTRINGENCY,INFLATION,THEASYMMETRYSINKTOSINKETCREASONCAUSEOFCRACKHAVEOUTSIDECARRYTHECRACKTHATTHEFUNCTIONCAUSEPROTECTEDENVIRONMENTNOTAPPROPRIATETHECRACKETCCAUSEDWITHCHEMICALEFFECTWANTDIFFERENTIATIONTOTREATINTHEACTUALENGINEERING,WORK°OUTAPROBLEMACCORDINGTOTHEACTUALCIRCUMSTANCEINTHECONCRETEENGINEERINGTHEFAMILIARCRACKANDTHEPREVENTION1STEMSUOCRACKANDPREVENTIONSTEMTHESUOCRACKMUCHAPPEARAFTERTHECONCRETEPROTECTBEOVEROFAPERIODOFTIMEORCONCRETESPRINKLETOBUILDTOCOMPLETEBEHINDOFAROUNDAWEEKINTHECEMENTSYRUPHUMIDITYOFEVAPORATEWOULDCREATIONSTEMSUO,ANDTHISKINDOFCONSTRINGENCYISCANTNEGATIVESTEMSUOCRACKOFTHECREATIONBEMAINISBECAUSEOFCONCRETEINSIDEOUTSIDEHUMIDITYEVAPORATEDEGREEDISSIMILARITYBUTCAUSETOTRANSFORMDISSIMILARITYOFRESULTTHECONCRETEISSUBJECTEDTOEXTERIORCONDITIONOFINFLUENCE,SURFACEHUMIDITYLOSSLEADQUICK,TRANSFORMBIGGER,INNERPARTDEGREEOFHUMIDITYVARIETYSMALLERTRANSFORMSMALLER,BIGGERSURFACESTEMTHESUOTRANSFORMTOBESUBJECTEDTOCONCRETEINNERPARTCONTROL,CREATIONMOREBIGPULLSHOULDDINTBUTCREATIONCRACKTHERELATIVEHUMIDITYISMORELOW,CEMENTSYRUPBODYSTEMSUOMOREBIG,STEMTHESUOCRACKBEMOREEASYCREATIONSTEMTHESUOCRACKISMUCHSURFACEPARALLELLINESFORMORTHENETSHALLOWTHINCRACK,WIDTHMANYBETWEEN00502MM,THEFLATSURFACEPARTMUCHSEEINTHEBIGPHYSICALVOLUMECONCRETEANDFOLLOWITMOREINTHINNERBEAMPLANKSHORTTODISTRIBUTESTEMSUOCRACKUSUALLYTHEANTISHENOFINFLUENCECONCRETE,CAUSETHEDURABLEOFTHERUSTECLIPSEINFLUENCECONCRETEOFREINFORCINGBAR,UNDERTHEFUNCTIONOFTHEWATERPRESSUREDINTWOULDCREATIONTHEWATERPOWERSPLITCRACKINFLUENCECONCRETEOFLOADINGDINTETCCONCRETESTEMTHESUOBEMAINWITHWATERASHOFTHECONCRETERATIO,THEDOSAGEOFTHECOMPOSITION,CEMENTOFCEMENT,GATHERTOANTICIPATEOFTHE

簡介：畢業(yè)設計開題報告題目土木與建筑系館設計方案四學生姓名XXX學號XXXXXX所在院系土木工程與建筑系專業(yè)班級建筑XXX指導教師XXXXXX年X月XX日2三、對本課題將要解決的主要問題及解決問題的思路與方法、擬采用的研究方法（技術(shù)路線）或設計（實驗）方案進行說明1解決的主要問題建筑學專業(yè)是個需要廣泛交流的專業(yè)，而傳統(tǒng)的教育模式往往對于這種要求都有著某種程度的忽視，而造成作為交流的物質(zhì)支撐條件的缺乏和不完善。這種情況已經(jīng)束縛了渴望交流的情感需要及專業(yè)的發(fā)展前景，為此我們一直在探討如何能夠解決這種束縛思想的問題。建筑學專業(yè)的學習很大一部分來自老師與學生，學生與學生之間的交流。教室的意義在于提供一個空間，而不是限定這種交流。傳統(tǒng)的教室，老師授課，學生被動接受知識，交流無法實現(xiàn)。能否改變這種形式，使學生和老師更加自由所以，在此設計中我更重視交流空間的營造和表達，希望引進一種“開放性交流”的概念。所以這個系館的設計主要是想改變一種舊有的模式，創(chuàng)造新的交流形式。2解決問題所采用的研究方法在研究方法上主要是從功能、結(jié)構(gòu)及外部形態(tài)這些方面來深入考慮。一是功能，建筑系館不僅僅是一棟教學樓，他更象一個容器。我們在里面生活、學習、工作、交流、思考、娛樂。這里面的功能是復雜多樣的，對各個空間的使用要求是不同的。因此在處理各部分空間時不能用一種手法進行空間表達，需要采用綜合形式的空間組合。希望運用不同的結(jié)構(gòu)形式滿足不同空間的使用要求。辦公、教學、實驗、多功能演講、娛樂、活動、休息等不同的空間都會在建筑中找到自己合適的位置，實現(xiàn)功能分區(qū)明確，流線合理，設施完善。二是結(jié)構(gòu)，因為空間的復雜和無序，因此在結(jié)構(gòu)中大部分采用可以靈活分隔空間的框架結(jié)構(gòu)，使其既有流動空間又有一定的隱蔽空間，部分也會加入磚混及梁板結(jié)構(gòu)，以便滿足一些特殊空間的使用要求。根據(jù)不同的使用要求空間采用不同的組合方式，使建筑更加經(jīng)濟合理；運用先進的科技表達前衛(wèi)的思想，并不束縛于傳統(tǒng)的空間理念，這是我想表達的結(jié)構(gòu)思想。另外在材料的使用上也希望既滿足教育類建筑的需求，也能反映一種時代及專業(yè)的特色。三是外部形態(tài)。在對建筑的外部形態(tài)的考慮上，希望不光單純的反映一種視覺效果，更能帶有專業(yè)的色彩，反映現(xiàn)代教育的精神和理念，使其成為校園中一道獨特的風景線。四、檢索與本課題有關(guān)參考文獻資料的簡要說明1中國現(xiàn)代美術(shù)全集建筑藝術(shù)，鄔德儂，中國建筑工業(yè)出版社，199852耶魯大學藝術(shù)與建筑系館，（美）斯托勒，中國建筑工業(yè)出版社，2001103建筑設計資料集（1－8），蔡鎮(zhèn)鈺，中國建筑工業(yè)出版社，199464現(xiàn)代建筑，肯尼斯弗蘭姆著，張欽楠譯，生活讀書新知三聯(lián)書店，200435空間組合論，彭一剛，中國建筑工業(yè)出版社，200566建筑師，建筑師雜志社，中國建筑工業(yè)出版社，200247公共建筑設計原理，張文忠，中國建筑工業(yè)出版社，199510

簡介：此文檔是畢業(yè)設計外文翻譯成品（含英文原文中文翻譯），無需調(diào)整復雜的格式下載之后直接可用，方便快捷本文價格不貴,也就幾十塊錢一輩子也就一次的事外文標題THEASSESSMENTOFBIDDINGSTRATEGYOFIRANIANCONSTRUCTIONFIRM外文作者BESMAEELI,MRAVANSHADNIA,MTBANKI文獻出處INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFMANAGEMENTSCIENCEANDENGINEERINGMANAGEMENT,VOLUME4,2018ISSUE2如覺得年份太老，可改為近2年，畢竟很多畢業(yè)生都這樣做英文2900單詞，18388字符字符就是印刷符，中文4686漢字。（如果字數(shù)多了，可自行刪減，大多數(shù)學校都是要求選取外文的一部分內(nèi)容進行翻譯的。）THEASSESSMENTOFBIDDINGSTRATEGYOFIRANIANCONSTRUCTIONFIRMABSTRACTARRIVINGATTHEFINALBIDPRICEISACRITICALDECISIONWHICHISMOSTLYDONETHROUGHEXPERIENCEANDINTUITIONSAS,MANYFACTORSAFFECTTHEFINALPROPOSEDPRICE,NOQUANTIFIEDDECISIONPROCESSESMAYLEADTOIRRATIONALLOWORHIGHPROPOSEDPRICESTHEREFORE,VARIOUSATTEMPTSHAVEBEENDONETOPROPOSESYSTEMATICMODELSTOTRACKANDANALYZETHEBIDDINGTRENDSTHISPAPERFOCUSESONTHEPREVIOUSTRENDSOFTHEBIDDINGPRICESTOESTIMATEPROPERBIDDINGCOSTINTHEIRANIANCONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRYTHEPRICESMIGHTBEINFLUENCEDBYENVIRONMENTALCHARACTERISTICSSUCHASCOMPETITORS’POLICIES,THENUMBEROFTENDEREDPROJECTS,THENUMBEROFCONTRACTORSCOMPETINGINTHECURRENTTENDER,PROJECTCHARACTERISTICS,ANDTHECLIENTTHESUBJECTOFBIDDINGPRICECANBEINVESTIGATEDTHROUGHTHECLIENTVIEWORTHECONTRACTORVIEWTHISPAPERATTENDSTHESECONDAPPROACHTHISPAPERPRESENTAQUANTITATIVEANALYSISOFIMPACTOFNUMBEROFBIDDERSONPROJECTBIDPRICESTHESTUDYFOUNDTHATINCREASINGTHENUMBEROFBIDDERSWILLRESULTINDECREASEDPROJECTBIDPRICESKEYWORDSBIDDINGSTRATEGY,STATISTICALANALYSIS,NUMBEROFBIDDERSTHEAUTHORSRIGHTFULLYSTATEDTHATTHEREISARENEWEDINTERESTINTHECOMPETITIVEBIDDINGPROBLEMANDINDICATEDTHATOVERTHELASTFIVEDECADESTHEREHASBEENARELATIVELYMODESTADDITIONTOTHESTATEOFTHEARTOSAMAMOSELHI,ANDTAREKHEGAZY4SUGGESTEDTHATBIDDINGSTRATEGYMODELSBEGROUPEDINTOTHREEMAINCATEGORIES1MODELSBASEDONPROBABILITYTHEORYEG,FRIEDMAN19565ANDGATES19676TOMAXIMIZETHEEXPECTEDPROFIT2MODELSBASEDONDECISIONSUPPORTSYSTEMSEG,AHMADANDMINKARAH19877TOACCOUNTFORTHEMULTIATTRIBUTEDNATUREOFBIDDINGDECISIONSAND3NEWLYEMERGINGMODELSBASEDONARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCETECHNIQUESEG,TAVAKOLIARIDUTOMO19898TOCONSIDERTHEHEURISTICANDUNSTRUCTUREDNATUREOFSUCHADECISIONPROBLEMTHEREISAGREATVOLUMEOFLITERATURECONCERNEDWITHBIDDINGSTRATEGIESTHEBASICASSUMPTIONOFALLTHEBIDDINGCALCULATIONSISTHATARELATIONSHIPEXISTSBETWEENTHETENDERSUMANDTHEPROBABILITYORCHANCE’OFWINNINGTHECONTRACT3THEAIMOFPROBABILISTICMODELSISTOEXPRESSTHISNUMERICALLYINENTERINGABIDDINGCOMPETITIONITISASSUMEDTHATTHECONTRACTORSFIRSTESTIMATETHEIRCOSTSANDTHENADDAMARKUPTOCOVERPROFITORAMARKUPTOCOVERCONTRIBUTION,IEPROFITANDCOMPANYOVERHEADSIILITERATURESURVEYRESEARCHERSHAVEBEENCONCERNEDWITHTHEPROBLEMOFBIDDINGSTRATEGYSINCETHEMID1950SSINCEFRIEDMAN’S5MATHEMATICALMODEL,WHICHISKNOWNTOBETHEFIRSTONE,THELITERATUREHASBEENFLOODEDWITHMANYBIDDINGMODELSHOWEVER,MOSTOFTHESEMODELSREMAINEDINACADEMICCIRCLESANDDIDNOTFINDTHEIRWAYINTOTHEPRACTICALWORLD3FAYEK1PRESENTSACOMPETITIVEBIDDINGSTRATEGYMODELFORUSEINSETTINGAMARKUPFORCONSTRUCTIONPROJECTSFAYEKETALSTUDIEDBIDDINGPRACTICESINAUSTRALIANANDCANADIANCONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRIES9,10JASELSKISANDTALUKHABA11FOCUSONBIDDINGCONSIDERATIONSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,CONSIDERINGTHEINHERENTRISKSEXISTINGSPECIFICALLYINTHESECOUNTRIESREGARDINGTHISISSUEWANOUSETAL12HADAQUESTIONNAIRESURVEYAMONGSYRIANCONTRACTORSLIETAL13APPLIESARTIFICIALNEURALNETWORKSFORCONSTRUCTIONMARKUPESTIMATIONEACHOFTHESESTUDIESHADVALUABLECONTRIBUTIONSTOBIDDINGANDMARKUPDECISIONSSEPARATELY

簡介：THEOPENCIVILENGINEERINGJOURNAL,2010,4,65716518741495/102010BENTHAMOPENOPENACCESSTHEUSEOFSHEETGLASSPOWDERASFINEAGGREGATEREPLACEMENTINCONCRETEMMAGESWARI1,ANDDRBVIDIVELLI21RESEARCHSCHOLAR,STRUCTURALENGINEERING,ANNAMALAIUNIVERSITY,ANNAMALAINAGAR,600002,TAMILNADU,INDIA2PROFESSOROFSTRUCTURALENGINEERING,ANNAMALAIUNIVERSITY,ANNAMALAINAGAR,600002,TAMILNADU,INDIAABSTRACTSHEETGLASSPOWDERSGPUSEDINCONCRETEMAKINGLEADSTOGREENERENVIRONMENTINSHOPS,NEARBYCHIDAMBARAMMANYSHEETGLASSCUTTINGSGOTOWASTE,WHICHARENOTRECYCLEDATPRESENTANDUSUALLYDELIVEREDTOLANDFILLSFORDISPOSALUSINGSGPINCONCRETEISANINTERESTINGPOSSIBILITYFORECONOMYONWASTEDISPOSALSITESANDCONSERVATIONOFNATURALRESOURCESTHISPAPEREXAMINESTHEPOSSIBILITYOFUSINGSGPASAREPLACEMENTINFINEAGGREGATEFORANEWCONCRETENATURALSANDWASPARTIALLYREPLACED10,20,30,40AND50WITHSGPCOMPRESSIVESTRENGTH,TENSILESTRENGTHCUBESANDCYLINDERSANDFLEXURALSTRENGTHUPTO180DAYSOFAGEWERECOMPAREDWITHTHOSEOFCONCRETEMADEWITHNATURALFINEAGGREGATESFINENESSMODULUS,SPECIFICGRAVITY,MOISTURECONTENT,WATERABSORPTION,BULKDENSITY,VOIDS,POROSITYLOOSEANDCOMPACTSTATEFORSANDSANDSDAWEREALSOSTUDIEDTHETESTRESULTSINDICATETHATITISPOSSIBLETOMANUFACTURECONCRETECONTAININGSHEETGLASSPOWDERSGPWITHCHARACTERISTICSSIMILARTOTHOSEOFNATURALSANDAGGREGATECONCRETEPROVIDEDTHATTHEPERCENTAGEOFSGPASFINEAGGREGATEISLIMITEDTO1020,RESPECTIVELYKEYWORDSSHEETGLASSPOWDER,MECHANICALPROPERTIES,FINENESSMODULUS,BULKDENSITY,MOISTURECONTENTINTRODUCTIONDURINGTHELASTDECADESITHASBEENRECOGNIZEDTHATSHEETGLASSWASTEISOFLARGEVOLUMEANDISINCREASINGYEARBYYEARINTHESHOPS,CONSTRUCTIONAREASANDFACTORIESUSINGWASTEGLASSINTHECONCRETECONSTRUCTIONSECTORISADVANTAGEOUS,ASTHEPRODUCTIONCOSTOFCONCRETEWILLGODOWN1WASTEGLASSESAREUSEDASAGGREGATESFORCONCRETE24INCHENNAITHEREISAPLACECALLEDCHIDAMBARAMWHEREMOSTOFTHECOLOREDSHEETGLASSESFROMWINDOWSAREPACKEDASAWASTEANDSENTTOLANDFILLTHEPLAINSHEETGLASSESCANBERECYCLED,BUTITISCOSTLYTOREMOVETHECOLOROFCOLOREDGLASSESANDRECYCLEAGAINESTIMATEDCOSTFORHOUSINGISMOREANDSOMECONSTRUCTIONMATERIALSLIKENATURALSANDAREALSOBECOMINGRARE5ATTEMPTSHAVEBEENMADEFORALONGTIMETOUSEWASTEGLASSESASANAGGREGATEINCONCRETE,BUTITSEEMSTHATTHECONCRETEWITHWASTEGLASSESALWAYSCRACKS2,6VERYLIMITEDWORKHASBEENCONDUCTEDFORTHEUSEOFGROUNDGLASSASACONCRETEREPLACEMENT7THESEWASTESTORAGEDISPOSALSAREBECOMINGASERIOUSENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMESPECIALLYFORCHIDAMBARAMWHEREPLACEDISPOSALSITESARELACKINGHENCETHEREISANEEDFORRECYCLINGMOREANDMOREWASTEMATERIALSTHEMOSTWIDELYUSEDFINEAGGREGATEFORTHEMAKINGOFCONCRETEISTHENATURALSANDMINEDFROMTHERIVERBEDSHOWEVER,THEAVAILABILITYOFRIVERSANDFORTHEPREPARATIONOFCONCRETEISBECOMINGSCARCEDUETOTHEEXCESSIVENONSCIENTIFICMETHODSOFMININGFROMTHERIVERBEDS,LOWERINGOFWATERTABLE,SINKINGOFTHEBRIDGEPIERS,ETCAREBECOMINGCOMMONADDRESSCORRESPONDENCETOTHISAUTHORATTHERESEARCHSCHOLAR,STRUCTURALENGINEERING,ANNAMALAIUNIVERSITY,ANNAMALAINAGAR,600002,TAMILNADU,INDIATEL9942365816EMAILMAG_RAJABISHEKREDIFFCOMTREATS5THEPRESENTSCENARIODEMANDSIDENTIFICATIONOFSUBSTITUTEMATERIALSFORTHERIVERSANDFORMAKINGCONCRETERECENTLY,SOMEATTEMPTSHAVEBEENMADETOUSEGROUNDGLASSASAREPLACEMENTINCONCRETE810THEOBJECTIVEOFTHISPAPERISTOPRESENTTHERESULTSOFEXPERIMENTALINVESTIGATIONSONPHYSICALANDMECHANICALPROPERTIESOFCONCRETEMADEWITHSHEETGLASSPOWDERCONCRETENATURALFINEAGGREGATEISSUBSTITUTEDBYWEIGHTBYSHEETGLASSPOWDERATRATESVARYINGFROM10,20,30,40AND50PERCENTAGESCOMPRESSIVE,TENSION,ANDFLEXURALSTRENGTHAREEVALUATEDANDCOMPAREDUPTO180DAYSOFAGESSPECIFICPROPERTIESOFCONCRETEMATERIALSANDSHEETGLASSPOWDERAREALSOSTUDIEDMATERIALSANDMETHODSTHERAWMATERIALS,USEDFORTHISSTUDYARENATURALCOARSEAGGREGATE,FINEAGGREGATE,SHEETGLASSPOWDERSGPAGGREGATEAND53GRADESPORTLANDCEMENTTHESHEETGLASSUSEDFORTHISSTUDYWASCOLLECTEDFROMTHEPOINTSINCHIDAMBARAMTALUKATCUDDALOREDISTRICTSHEETGLASSISCONVERTEDINTOFINEAGGREGATEASSHOWNINFLOWCHARTFIG1ANDTHEPROCEDUREFORMAKINGSHEETGLASSCRETEISSHOWNINFLOWCHARTFIG2SHEETGLASSCOLLECTEDFROMSHOPSISSHOWNINFIG3,SHEETGLASSCRUSHEDISSHOWNINFIG4ANDSHEETGLASSPOWDERISSHOWNINFIG5SHEETGLASSPOWDERUSINGSIEVESIZEFROM475MMONWARDSISSHOWNINFIG6TABLE1SHOWSTHEFINENESSMODULUSRESULTSOFS,SGP,S10SGP,S20SGP,S30SGP,S40SGPANDS50SGPFIG3SHOWSTHEFINEAGGREGATEMATERIALOFGRADINGCURVEANDALSOSGP,S10SGP,S20SGP,S30SGP,S40SGPS50SGPAND100SGPTHESANDUSEDFORTHESTUDYWASLOCALLYAVAILABLERIVERSANDCONFORMINGTOGRADINGZONEIIIOFIS3831970THECOARSEAGGREGATEWASATHEUSEOFSHEETGLASSPOWDERASFINEAGGREGATEREPLACEMENTTHEOPENCIVILENGINEERINGJOURNAL,2010,VOLUME467FIG3SHEETGLASSFIG4CRUSHEDSHEETGLASSFIG5SHEETGLASSPOWDERFIG6SIEVEANALYSISOFTHEMATERIALSTABLE1FINENESSMODULUSPARAMETERSANDCOARSESGP90S10SGP80S20SGP70S30SGP60S40SGP50S50SGPSPECIFICGRAVITY26527301327327322315314WATERABSORPTION83045156958504542MOISTURECONTENT37000525724222020BULKDENSITYDRYLOOSESTATEKG/M314681450131015101530154015401520VOIDS40839575354525152POROSITY28927363435343334BULKDENSITYDRYCOMPACTSTATEKG/M315121640153016201650170017001690VOIDS353934504949474646POROSITY25925333232313131FLAKINESSINDEX10ELONGATIONINDEX961TABLE2PHYSICALPROPERTIESOFMATERIALSOXIDESIO2A2O3FE2O3CAOMGOSO3LOINA2OK2OPERCENTAGEBYMASS722011307009022011MATERIALFINENESSMODULUSSANDS221SGP21690S10SGP22580S20SGP19870S30SGP19760S40SGP18450S50SGP182

簡介：ORIGINALARTICLESURFACESETTLEMENTPREDICTIONSFORISTANBULMETROTUNNELSEXCAVATEDBYEPBTBMSGERCELEBIHCOPURIOCAKRECEIVED13JULY2009/ACCEPTED15MARCH2010/PUBLISHEDONLINE27MARCH2010?SPRINGERVERLAG2010ABSTRACTINTHISSTUDY,SHORTTERMSURFACESETTLEMENTSAREPREDICTEDFORTWINTUNNELS,WHICHARETOBEEXCAVATEDINTHECHAINAGEOF0850TO0900MBETWEENTHEESENLERANDKIRAZLISTATIONSOFTHEISTANBULMETROLINE,WHICHIS4KMINLENGTHTHETOTALLENGTHOFTHEEXCAVATIONLINEIS212KMBETWEENESENLERANDBASAKSEHIRTUNNELSAREEXCAVATEDBYEMPLOYINGTWOEARTHPRESSUREBALANCEEPBTUNNELBORINGMACHINESTBMSTHATHAVETWINTUBESOF65MDIAMETERANDWITH14MDISTANCEFROMCENTERTOCENTERTHETBMINTHERIGHTTUBEFOLLOWSABOUT100MBEHINDTHEOTHERTUBESEGMENTALLININGOF14MLENGTHISCURRENTLYEMPLOYEDASTHEFINALSUPPORTSETTLEMENTPREDICTIONSAREPERFORMEDWITHFINITEELEMENTMETHODBYUSINGPLAXISFINITEELEMENTPROGRAMEXCAVATION,GROUNDSUPPORTANDFACESUPPORTSTEPSINFEMANALYSESARESIMULATEDASAPPLIEDINTHEFIELDPREDICTIONSAREPERFORMEDFORATYPICALGEOLOGICALZONE,WHICHISCONSIDEREDASCRITICALINTERMSOFSURFACESETTLEMENTGEOLOGYINTHESTUDYAREAISCOMPOSEDOFFILL,VERYSTIFFCLAY,DENSESAND,VERYDENSESANDANDHARDCLAY,RESPECTIVELY,STARTINGFROMTHESURFACEINADDITIONTOFINITEELEMENTMODELING,THESURFACESETTLEMENTSAREALSOPREDICTEDBYUSINGSEMITHEORETICALSEMIEMPIRICALANDANALYTICALMETHODSTHERESULTSINDICATETHATTHEFEMODELPREDICTSWELLTHESHORTTERMSURFACESETTLEMENTSFORAGIVENVOLUMELOSSVALUETHERESULTSOFSEMITHEORETICALANDANALYTICALMETHODSAREFOUNDTOBEINGOODAGREEMENTWITHTHEFEMODELTHERESULTSOFPREDICTIONSARECOMPAREDANDVERIFIEDBYFIELDMEASUREMENTSITISSUGGESTEDTHATGROUTINGOFTHEEXCAVATIONVOIDSHOULDBEPERFORMEDASFASTASPOSSIBLEAFTEREXCAVATIONOFASECTIONASAPRECAUTIONAGAINSTSURFACESETTLEMENTSDURINGEXCAVATIONFACEPRESSUREOFTHETBMSSHOULDBECLOSELYMONITOREDANDADJUSTEDFORDIFFERENTZONESKEYWORDSSURFACESETTLEMENTPREDICTION?FINITEELEMENTMETHOD?ANALYTICALMETHOD?SEMITHEORETICALMETHOD?EPBTBMTUNNELING?ISTANBULMETROINTRODUCTIONINCREASINGDEMANDONINFRASTRUCTURESINCREASESATTENTIONTOSHALLOWSOFTGROUNDTUNNELINGMETHODSINURBANIZEDAREASMANYSURFACEANDSUBSURFACESTRUCTURESMAKEUNDERGROUNDCONSTRUCTIONWORKSVERYDELICATEDUETOTHEINFLUENCEOFGROUNDDEFORMATION,WHICHSHOULDBEDEFINITELYLIMITED/CONTROLLEDTOACCEPTABLELEVELSINDEPENDENTOFTHEEXCAVATIONMETHOD,THESHORTANDLONGTERMSURFACEANDSUBSURFACEGROUNDDEFORMATIONSSHOULDBEPREDICTEDANDREMEDIALPRECAUTIONSAGAINSTANYDAMAGETOEXISTINGSTRUCTURESPLANNEDPRIORTOCONSTRUCTIONTUNNELINGCOSTSUBSTANTIALLYINCREASESDUETODAMAGESTOSTRUCTURESRESULTINGFROMSURFACESETTLEMENTS,WHICHAREABOVETOLERABLELIMITSBILGINETAL2009BASICPARAMETERSAFFECTINGTHEGROUNDDEFORMATIONSAREGROUNDCONDITIONS,TECHNICAL/ENVIRONMENTALPARAMETERSANDTUNNELINGORCONSTRUCTIONMETHODSO’REILLYANDNEW1982ARIOGLU1992KARAKUSANDFOWELL2003TANANDRANJIT2003MINGUEZETAL2005ELLIS2005SUWANSAWATANDEINSTEIN2006ATHOROUGHSTUDYOFTHEGROUNDBYSITEINVESTIGATIONSSHOULDBEPERFORMEDTOFINDOUTTHEPHYSICALSGERCELEBI?HCOPURMININGENGINEERINGDEPARTMENT,ISTANBULTECHNICALUNIVERSITY,MASLAK,34469ISTANBUL,TURKEYEMAILERCELEBIITUEDUTRIOCAKRAILTRANSPORTATIONDEPARTMENTIETT,ISTANBULMETROPOLITANMUNICIPALITY,ISTANBUL,TURKEY123ENVIRONEARTHSCI201162357–365DOI101007/S1266501005306300KPAOFPRESSURETHROUGHTHEGROUTCANNELSINTHETRAILINGSHIELDTHISMETHODOFCONSTRUCTIONHASBEENPROVENTOMINIMIZETHESURFACESETTLEMENTSTHESTUDYAREAINCLUDESTHETWINTUNNELSOFTHECHAINAGEBETWEEN0850AND0900M,BETWEENESENLERANDKIRAZLISTATIONSGUNGORENFORMATIONOFTHEMIOSENAGEISFOUNDINTHESTUDYAREALABORATORYANDINSITUTESTSAREAPPLIEDTODEFINETHEGEOTECHNICALFEATURESOFTHEFORMATIONSTHATTHETUNNELSPASSTHROUGHTHENAME,THICKNESSANDSOMEOFTHEGEOTECHNICALPROPERTIESOFTHELAYERSARESUMMARIZEDINTABLE2AYSON2005FILLLAYEROF25MTHICKCONSISTSOFSAND,CLAY,GRAVELANDSOMEPIECESOFMASONRYTHEVERYSTIFFCLAYLAYEROF4MISGRAYISHGREENINCOLOR,CONSISTINGOFGRAVELANDSANDTHEDENSESANDLAYEROF5MISBROWNATTHEUPPERLEVELSANDGREENISHYELLOWATTHELOWERLEVELS,CONSISTINGOFCLAY,SILTANDMICADENSESANDOF3MISGREENISHYELLOWANDCONSISTSOFMICATHEBASELAYEROFTHETUNNELISHARDCLAY,WHICHISDARKGREEN,CONSISTINGOFSHELLTHEUNDERGROUNDWATERTABLESTARTSAT45MBELOWTHESURFACETHETUNNELAXISIS145MBELOWTHESURFACE,CLOSETOTHECONTACTBETWEENVERYDENSESANDANDHARDCLAYTHISDEPTHISMARMARASEAAKSARAYOTOGARBAAKEHIR0KM5KMEUROPEANSIDEANATOLIASIDEBOSPHORUSBAKIRKOYIDOHALKALIOLIMPIYATK?YüGüNEYSANAYIATATüRKAIRPORTGOLDENHORNKIRAZLI100000500100015002000250030003500400045005000VIADATGRADERWBOREDTUNNELBOREDTUNNELBOREDTUNNELBOREDTUNNEL1020304050607080CUTCOVERCUTCOVERCUTCOVERCUTCOVERSTRUCTURETYPEKILOMETERFILLCLAYSANDTRAKYAFORMATIONMETROLINE0M250MFIG1MAINROUTEANDGEOLOGICALSECTIONOFESENLERANDBASAKSEHIRMETROLINEOCAK2009TABLE1SOMEOFTHETECHNICALFEATURESOFTHEEPBTBMSHERRENKNECHTLOVATEXCAVATIONDIAMETER6500M6564MSHIELDOUTSIDEDIAMETER645M652MTBMLENGTH768M930MBACKUPLENGTH80M65MTOTALWEIGHT578T534TMAXIMUMCUTTERHEADRPM0–250–60TOTALINSTALLEDPOWER963KW1,622KWCUTTERHEADTYPEMIXEDGROUNDMIXEDGROUNDCUTTERHEADPOWER630KW900KWMAXIMUMTORQUE435TM445TMMAXIMUMTHRUST32000KN54000KNENVIRONEARTHSCI201162357–365359123

簡介：EJSESPECIALISSUELOADINGONSTRUCTURES20071INTRODUCTIONOTHERPAPERSPRESENTEDINTHISSERIESCONSIDERTHEDESIGNOFBUILDINGSFORGRAVITYLOADS,WINDANDEARTHQUAKESTHEDESIGNOFBUILDINGSAGAINSTSUCHLOADEFFECTSISTOALARGEEXTENTCOVEREDBYENGINEERINGBASEDSTANDARDSREFERENCEDBYTHEBUILDINGREGULATIONSTHISISNOTTHECASE,TONEARLYTHESAMEEXTENT,INTHECASEOFFIRERATHER,ITISBUILDINGREGULATIONSSUCHASTHEBUILDINGCODEOFAUSTRALIABCATHATDIRECTLYSPECIFYMOSTOFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORFIRESAFETYOFBUILDINGSWITHREFERENCEBEINGMADETOSTANDARDSSUCHASAS3600ORAS4100FORMETHODSFORDETERMININGTHEFIRERESISTANCEOFSTRUCTURALELEMENTSTHEPURPOSEOFTHISPAPERISTOCONSIDERTHEDESIGNOFBUILDINGSFORFIRESAFETYFROMANENGINEERINGPERSPECTIVEASISCURRENTLYDONEFOROTHERLOADSSUCHASWINDOREARTHQUAKES,WHILSTATTHESAMETIME,PUTTINGSUCHAPPROACHESINTHECONTEXTOFTHECURRENTREGULATORYREQUIREMENTSATTHEOUTSET,ITNEEDSTOBENOTEDTHATDESIGNINGABUILDINGFORFIRESAFETYISFARMORETHANSIMPLYCONSIDERINGTHEBUILDINGSTRUCTUREANDWHETHERITHASSUFFICIENTSTRUCTURALADEQUACYTHISISBECAUSEFIRESCANHAVEADIRECTINFLUENCEONOCCUPANTSVIASMOKEANDHEATANDCANGROWINSIZEANDSEVERITYUNLIKEOTHEREFFECTSIMPOSEDONTHEBUILDINGNOTWITHSTANDINGTHESECOMMENTS,THEFOCUSOFTHISPAPERWILLBELARGELYONDESIGNISSUESASSOCIATEDWITHTHEBUILDINGSTRUCTURETWOSITUATIONSASSOCIATEDWITHABUILDINGAREUSEDFORTHEPURPOSEOFDISCUSSIONTHEMULTISTOREYOFFICEBUILDINGSHOWNINFIGURE1ISSUPPORTEDBYATRANSFERSTRUCTURETHATSPANSOVERASETOFRAILWAYTRACKSITISASSUMEDTHATAWIDERANGEOFRAILTRAFFICUTILISESTHESETRACKSINCLUDINGFREIGHTANDDIESELLOCOMOTIVESTHEFIRSTSITUATIONTOBECONSIDEREDFROMAFIRESAFETYPERSPECTIVEISTHETRANSFERSTRUCTURETHISISTERMEDSITUATION1ANDTHEKEYQUESTIONSAREWHATLEVELOFFIRERESISTANCEISREQUIREDFORTHISTRANSFERSTRUCTUREANDHOWCANTHISBEDETERMINEDTHISSITUATIONHASBEENCHOSENSINCEITCLEARLYFALLSOUTSIDETHENORMALREGULATORYSCOPEOFMOSTBUILDINGREGULATIONSANENGINEERINGSOLUTION,RATHERTHANAPRESCRIPTIVEONEISREQUIREDTHESECONDFIRESITUATIONTERMEDSITUATION2CORRESPONDSTOAFIREDESIGNINGAGAINSTFIREIDBENNETTSNOELARNOLDANDASSOCIATES,MELBOURNEAUSTRALIAIRTHOMASCESARE,VICTORIAUNIVERSITY,AUSTRALIAABSTRACTTHISPAPERCONSIDERSTHEDESIGNOFBUILDINGSFORFIRESAFETYITISFOUNDTHATFIREANDTHEASSOCIATEDEFFECTSONBUILDINGSISSIGNIFICANTLYDIFFERENTTOOTHERFORMSOFLOADINGSUCHASGRAVITYLIVELOADS,WINDANDEARTHQUAKESANDTHEIRRESPECTIVEEFFECTSONTHEBUILDINGSTRUCTUREFIREEVENTSAREDERIVEDFROMTHEHUMANACTIVITIESWITHINBUILDINGSORFROMTHEMALFUNCTIONOFMECHANICALANDELECTRICALEQUIPMENTPROVIDEDWITHINBUILDINGSTOACHIEVEASERVICEABLEENVIRONMENTITISTHEREFOREPOSSIBLETODIRECTLYINFLUENCETHERATEOFFIRESTARTSWITHINBUILDINGSBYCHANGINGHUMANBEHAVIOUR,IMPROVEDMAINTENANCEANDIMPROVEDDESIGNOFMECHANICALANDELECTRICALSYSTEMSFURTHERMORE,SHOULDAFIREDEVELOPS,ITISPOSSIBLETODIRECTLYINFLUENCETHERESULTINGFIRESEVERITYBYTHEINCORPORATIONOFFIRESAFETYSYSTEMSSUCHASSPRINKLERSANDTOPROVIDEMEASURESWITHINTHEBUILDINGTOENABLESAFEREGRESSFROMTHEBUILDINGTHEABILITYTOINFLUENCETHERATEOFFIRESTARTSANDTHERESULTINGFIRESEVERITYISUNIQUETOTHECONSIDERATIONOFFIREWITHINBUILDINGSSINCEOTHERLOADSSUCHASWINDANDEARTHQUAKESAREDIRECTLYAFUNCTIONOFNATURETHEPOSSIBLEAPPROACHESFORDESIGNINGABUILDINGFORFIRESAFETYAREPRESENTEDUSINGANEXAMPLEOFAMULTISTOREYBUILDINGCONSTRUCTEDOVERARAILWAYLINETHEDESIGNOFBOTHTHETRANSFERSTRUCTURESUPPORTINGTHEBUILDINGOVERTHERAILWAYANDTHELEVELSABOVETHETRANSFERSTRUCTUREARECONSIDEREDINTHECONTEXTOFCURRENTREGULATORYREQUIREMENTSTHEPRINCIPLESANDASSUMPTIONSASSOCIATEDWITHVARIOUSAPPROACHESAREDISCUSSED9EJSESPECIALISSUELOADINGONSTRUCTURES2007TEMMAYASSISTINTHEDEVELOPMENTOFOTHERLOADRESISTINGMECHANISMSSEESECTION435WITHTHEEXCEPTIONOFTHEDEVELOPMENTOFFORCESDUETORESTRAINTOFTHERMALEXPANSION,FIREDOESNOTIMPOSELOADSONTHESTRUCTUREBUTRATHERREDUCESSTIFFNESSANDSTRENGTHSUCHEFFECTSARENOTINSTANTANEOUSBUTAREAFUNCTIONOFTIMEANDTHISISDIFFERENTTOTHEEFFECTSOFLOADSSUCHASEARTHQUAKEANDWINDTHATAREMOREORLESSINSTANTANEOUSHEATINGEFFECTSASSOCIATEDWITHAFIREWILLNOTBESIGNIFICANTORTHERATEOFLOSSOFCAPACITYWILLBESLOWEDIFATHEFIREISEXTINGUISHEDEGANEFFECTIVESPRINKLERSYSTEMBTHEFIREISOFINSUFFICIENTSEVERITY–INSUFFICIENTFUEL,AND/ORCTHESTRUCTURALELEMENTSHAVESUFFICIENTTHERMALMASSAND/ORINSULATIONTOSLOWTHERISEININTERNALTEMPERATUREFIREPROTECTIONMEASURESSUCHASPROVIDINGSUFFICIENTAXISDISTANCEANDDIMENSIONSFORCONCRETEELEMENTS,ANDSUFFICIENTINSULATIONTHICKNESSFORSTEELELEMENTSAREEXAMPLESOFCTHESEAREILLUSTRATEDINFIGURE2THETWOSITUATIONSDESCRIBEDINTHEINTRODUCTIONARENOWCONSIDERED3FIRESDUETOTRAINSBELOWBUILDING31POSSIBLEAPPROACHESWHATLEVELOFFIRERESISTANCEISREQUIREDFORTHETRANSFERSTRUCTURESHOWNINFIGURE1ONEAPPROACHTOANSWERINGTHISQUESTIONCOULDBETODESIGNTHETRANSFERSTRUCTURETORESISTTHEMOSTSEVEREPOSSIBLEFIREUNTILTHATFIREHASBURNTOUTHOWEVER,IFTHETRAINSTRAVELINGBELOWTHEBUILDINGINCLUDEARANGEOFDIESELLOCOMOTIVESANDFREIGHTCARS,ITMAYNOTBEECONOMICALLYFEASIBLETODESIGNAGAINSTTHEWORSTPOSSIBLEFIREANOTHERMORERATIONALAPPROACHWOULDBETODESIGNTHETRANSFERSTRUCTURALELEMENTSAGAINSTFIRESUCHTHATTHEPROBABILITYOFFAILUREOFTHEMEMBERSINTHEEVENTOFFIREMANYDIFFERENTFIRESWITHDIFFERENTPROBABILITIESOFOCCURRENCEISNOGREATERTHANTHATASSOCIATEDWITHTHENORMALTEMPERATURELOADINGCONDITIONSINTHISAPPROACHACCOUNTMUSTBETAKENOFATHEVARIABILITYASSOCIATEDW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