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1、1CommonCommonlawlawCommonCommonlawlawreferstolawthecrespondinglegalsystemdevelopedthroughdecisionsofcourtssimilartribunals(calledcaselaw)ratherthanthroughlegislativestatutesexecutivemonlawislawcreatedrefinedbyjudges:adec
2、isioninacurrentlypendinglegalcasedependsondecisionsinpreviouscasesaffectsthelawtobeappliedinfuturecases.Whenthereisnoauthitativestatementofthelawjudgeshavetheauthitydutytomakelawbycreatingprecedent.Thebodyofprecedentisca
3、lled“commonlaw“itbindsfuturedecisions.Infuturecaseswhenpartiesdisagreeonwhatthelawisanidealizedcommonlawcourtlookstopastprecedentialdecisionsofrelevantcourts.Ifasimilardisputehasbeenresolvedinthepastthecourtisboundtofoll
4、owthereasoningusedinthepridecision(thisprincipleisknownasstaredecisis).Ifhoweverthecourtfindsthatthecurrentdisputeisfundamentallydistinctfromallpreviouscasesitwilldecideasa“matteroffirstimpression.“Thereafterthenewdecisi
5、onbecomesprecedentwillbindfuturecourtsundertheprincipleofstaredecisis.Inpracticecommonlawsystemsareconsiderablymecomplicatedthantheidealizedsystemdescribedabove.Thedecisionsofacourtarebindingonlyinaparticularjurisdiction
6、evenwithinagivenjurisdictionsomecourtshavemepowerthanothers.Fexampleinmostjurisdictionsdecisionsbyappellatecourtsarebindingonlowercourtsinthesamejurisdictiononfuturedecisionsofthesameappellatecourtbutdecisionsofnonappell
7、atecourtsareonlynonbindingpersuasiveauthity.Interactionsbetweencommonlawconstitutionallawstatutylawregulatylawalsogiverisetoconsiderablecomplexity.Howeverstaredecisistheprinciplethatsimilarcasesshouldbedecidedaccdingtoco
8、nsistentprincipledrulessothattheywillreachsimilarresultsliesattheheartofallcommonlawmonlawlegalsystemsareinwidespreaduseparticularlyinthosenationswhichtracetheirlegalheritagetoBritainincludingtheUnitedKingdommostoftheUni
9、tedStatesotherfmercoloniesoftheBritishEmpiresuchasIndia[2]CanadaNewZealAustraliaHongKong.[3]InjunctionInjunctionAninjunctioninjunctionisanequitableremedyinthefmofacourtderwherebyapartyisrequiredtodotorefrainfromdoingcert
10、ainacts.Thepartythatfailstoadheretotheinjunctionfacescivilcriminalpenaltiesmayhavetopaydamagesacceptsanctionsffailingtofollowthecourtsder.Insomecasesbreachesofinjunctionsareconsideredseriouscriminaloffencesthatmeritarres
11、tpossibleprisonsentences.MisrepresentationMisrepresentationMisrepresentationMisrepresentationisacontractlawconcept.Itmeansafalsestatementoffactmadebyonepartytoanotherpartywhichhastheeffectofinducingthatpartyintothecontra
12、ct.Fexampleundercertaincircumstancesfalsestatementspromisesmadebyasellerofgoodsregardingthequalitynatureoftheproductthatthesellerhasmayconstitutemisrepresentation.Afindingofmisrepresentationallowsfaremedyofrescissionsome
13、timesdamagesdependingonthetypeofmisrepresentation.EstoppelEstoppel3Astatutestatuteisafmalwrittenenactmentofalegislativeauthitythatgovernsacountrystatecitycounty.[1]Typicallystatutescommprohibitsomethingdeclarepolicy.Thew
14、disoftenusedtodistinguishlawmadebylegislativebodiesfromthejudicialdecisionsofthecommonlawtheregulationsissuedbyGovernmentagencies.[1]Statutesaresometimesreferredtoaslegislation“blackletterlaw“.Asasourceoflawstatutesareco
15、nsideredprimaryauthity(asopposedtosecondaryauthity).Befeastatutebecomeslawinsomecountriesitmustbeagreeduponbythehighestexecutiveinthegovernmentfinallypublishedaspartofacode.Inmanycountriesstatutesareganizedintopicalarran
16、gements(“codified“)withinpublicationscalledcodessuchastheUnitedStatesCode.IntheUnitedStatesstatutylawisdistinguishedfromsubdinatetoconstitutionallaw.AgencyAgency(law)(law)AgencyAgencyisanareaofcommerciallawdealingwithaco
17、ntractualquasicontractualtripartitenoncontractualsetofrelationshipswhenanagentisauthizedtoactonbehalfofanother(calledthePrincipal)tocreatealegalrelationshipwithaThirdParty.[1]Succinctlyitmaybereferredtoastherelationshipb
18、etweenaprincipalanagentwherebytheprincipalexpresslyimpliedlyauthizestheagenttowkunderhiscontrolonhisbehalf.Theagentisthusrequiredtonegotiateonbehalfoftheprincipalbringhimthirdpartiesintocontractualrelationship.Thisbranch
19、oflawseparatesregulatestherelationshipsbetween:?AgentsPrincipals?AgentstheThirdPartieswithwhomtheydealontheirPrincipalsbehalf?PrincipalstheThirdPartieswhentheAgentspurpttodealontheirbehalf.Thecommonlawprincipleinoperatio
20、nisusuallyrepresentedintheLatinphrasequifacitperaliumfacitpersei.e.theonewhoactsthroughanotheractsinhisherowninterestsitisaparallelconcepttovicariousliabilitystrictliabilityinwhichonepersonisheldliableinCriminallawTtfthe
21、actsomissionsofanother.GoodGoodfaithfaithGoodGoodfaithfaithinLatinbonabonafidesfides(bonabonafidefidemeans“ingoodfaith“)isthementalmalstateofhonestyconvictionastothetruthfalsehoodofapropositionbodyofopinionastotherectitu
22、dedepravityofalineofconduct.Thisconceptisimptantinlawespeciallyequitablematters.[1]IncontemparyEnglish“bonafides“issometimesusedasasynonymfcredentialsbackgrounddocumentationofapersonsidentity.“Showmeyourbonafides“canmean
23、:WhyshouldItrustyou(yourgoodfaithinthismatter)Tellmewhoyouare.Inthissensethephraseissometimesusedinjobadvertisementsshouldnotbeconfusedwiththebonafideoccupationalqualificationstheemployersgoodfaithefftasdescribedbelow.[2
24、]CommissionerCommissionerCommissionerCommissionerisinprincipalthetitlegiventotheholderofacommissioncommissioninthesenseofamatewhetherindividuallysharednotablyasmemberofacollegialcommission.Inpracticethetitleofcommissione
25、rhasevolvedtoincludeavarietyofseniofficialsoftensittingonaspecificcommission.Inparticularcommissionerfrequentlyreferstosenipolicegovernmentofficials.AHighCommissionerisequivalenttoanambassadbetweenCommonwealthstatesshari
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