計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu) - hello world!

1、2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),1,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu),周學(xué)海xhzhou@ustc.edu.cn0551-63601556, 63492271中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1 量化設(shè)計與分析基礎(chǔ),1.1 引言計算機的分類計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)的定義現(xiàn)代計算機系統(tǒng)發(fā)展趨勢1.2 定量分析基礎(chǔ),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),2,3,Computing Devices Then…,EDSAC, University of

2、Cambridge, UK, 1949,,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),4,,Computing Systems Today,Scalable, Reliable,Secure Services,MEMS for Sensor Nets,InternetConnectivity,DatabasesInformation CollectionRemote StorageOnline

3、 GamesCommerce…,The world is a large parallel systemMicroprocessors in everythingVast infrastructure behind them,Robots,Routers,Cars,SensorNets,Refrigerators,計算機的分類,個人移動設(shè)備 (PMD)e.g. smart phones, tablet computers

4、>1 billion sold/yearMarket dominated by ARM-ISA-compatible general-purpose processor in system-on-a-chip (SoC)Plus sea of custom accelerators (radio, image, video, graphics, audio, motion, location, security, etc.)

5、 Emphasis on energy efficiency and real-time桌面計算（Desktop Computing）Emphasis on price-performance服務(wù)器（Servers）Emphasis on availability, scalability, throughput,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),5,計算機的分類（續(xù)）,集群/倉庫級計算機（Clusters / Wareho

6、use Scale Computers）100,000’s cores per warehouseMarket dominated by x86-compatible server chipsDedicated apps, plus cloud hosting of virtual machinesStarting to see some GPU usage, but mostly general-purpose CPU cod

7、eUsed for “Software as a Service (SaaS)”Sub-class: Supercomputers, emphasis: floating-point performance and fast internal networksEmphasis on availability and price-performance嵌入式計算機（Embedded Computers）Wired/wirel

8、ess network infrastructure, printersConsumer TV/Music/Games/Automotive/Camera/MP3Emphasis: price,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),6,并行及并行體系結(jié)構(gòu),應(yīng)用程序中的并行:Data-Level Parallelism (DLP)Task-Level Parallelism (TLP)硬件挖掘應(yīng)用程序的DLP或TLP的方式)

9、Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP)Vector architectures/Graphic Processor Units (GPUs)Thread-Level ParallelismRequest-Level Parallelism,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),7,Flynn’s Taxonomy,單指令流，單數(shù)據(jù)流(SISD)單指令流，多數(shù)據(jù)流 (SIMD)Vector ar

10、chitecturesMultimedia extensionsGraphics processor units多指令流，單數(shù)據(jù)流 (MISD)No commercial implementation多指令流，多數(shù)據(jù)流 (MIMD)Tightly-coupled MIMDLoosely-coupled MIMD,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),8,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)的定義？,9,Application,Physics,I

11、n its broadest definition, computer architecture is the design of the abstraction layers that allow us to implement information processing applications efficiently using available manufacturing technologies.,(but there a

12、re exceptions, e.g. magnetic compass),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),10,現(xiàn)代計算機系統(tǒng)的抽象層次,Algorithm,Gates/Register-Transfer Level (RTL),Application,Instruction Set Architecture (ISA),Operating System/Virtual Machine,Mi

13、croarchitecture,Devices,Programming Language,Circuits,Physics,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),11,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)的定義,... the attributes of a [computing] system as seen by the programmer, i.e. the conceptual structure and functional behavior

14、, as distinct from the organization of the data flows and controls ，the logic design, and the physical implementation. – Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks, 1964,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)的定義（續(xù)）,“Old” view of comp

15、uter architecture:Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) designi.e. decisions regarding:registers, memory addressing, addressing modes, instruction operands, available operations, control flow instructions, instruction en

16、coding“Real” computer architecture:Specific requirements of the target machineDesign to maximize performance within constraints: cost, power, and availabilityIncludes ISA, microarchitecture, hardware,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技

17、術(shù)大學(xué),12,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),13,ISA: a Critical Interface,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),14,ISA需說明的主要內(nèi)容,Memory addressingAddressing modesTypes and sizes of operandsOperationsControl flow instructionsEncoding an ISA……,Properties o

18、f a good abstractionLasts through many generations (portability)Used in many different ways (generality)Provides convenient functionality to higher levelsPermits an efficient implementation at lower levels,2024/3/17

19、,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),15,Digital Alpha(v1, v3) 1992-97HP PA-RISC(v1.1, v2.0)1986-96Sun Sparc (v8, v9) 1987-95SGI MIPS (MIPS I, II, III, IV, V)1986-96Intel(8086,80286,80386, 19

20、78-96 80486,Pentium, MMX, ...),指令集結(jié)構(gòu)舉例,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),16,,指令類型Load/StoreComputationalJump and BranchFloating PointcoprocessorMemory ManagementSpecial,,R0 - R31,,,,PC,HI,LO,,OP,,,,OP,,,,,OP,,,,,rs,rt,rd,sa,f

21、unct,rs,rt,immediate,jump target,3 種指令格式: all 32 bits wide,Registers,MIPS R3000 Instruction Set Architecture (Summary),J 型,I 型,R型,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),17,,計算機組成（Computer Organization or Microarchitecture): ISA的邏輯實現(xiàn)物理機器級中的

22、數(shù)據(jù)流和控制流的組成以及邏輯設(shè)計等計算機實現(xiàn)（Computer Implementation):計算機組成的物理實現(xiàn)CPU ，MEMORY等的物理結(jié)構(gòu)，器件的集成度、速度，模塊、插件、底板的劃分與連接、信號傳輸、電源、冷卻及整機裝配技術(shù)等例如確定指令系統(tǒng)中是否有乘法指令 (Architecture)確定用加法器實現(xiàn)乘法 還是用專門的乘法實現(xiàn)（Organization)器件的選定及所用的微組裝技術(shù) （Implementatio

23、n),計算機組成與實現(xiàn),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),18,,Example Organization,TI SuperSPARCtm TMS390Z50 in Sun SPARCstation20,Boot PROM,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),19,現(xiàn)代計算機系統(tǒng)發(fā)展趨勢,Performance電路技術(shù)的發(fā)展CMOS VLSI 取代了原來的TTL, ECL技術(shù)，提高了器件性能，降低了器件成本。計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)技

24、術(shù)的發(fā)展，提高了低端產(chǎn)品的性能。RISC, Superscalar, VLIW, RAID, ….Price 開發(fā)周期縮短，難度降低采用 CMOS VLSI，組件減少，系統(tǒng)相對較小。大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)，批量大系列機的概念，使得服務(wù)成本降低。Function網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)，互連網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，使得低端產(chǎn)品的功能增強。,Transistors and Wires,特征尺寸（Feature size）Minimum size of tra

25、nsistor or wire in x or y dimension10 microns in 1971 to .032 microns in 2011晶體管性能線性增長Wire delay does not improve with feature size!集成度平方增長,Trends in Technology,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),20,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),21,Moore’s Law

26、,“Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits”Gordon Moore, Electronics, 1965# on transistors on cost-effective integrated circuit double every 18 months,,22,[from Kurzweil],Major Technology Generations,Bipolar,n

27、MOS,CMOS,pMOS,Relays,Vacuum Tubes,Electromechanical,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Trends in Technology,Integrated circuit technologyTransistor density: 35%/yearDie size: 10-20%/yearIntegration overall: 40-55%/yearDR

28、AM capacity: 25-40%/year (slowing)Flash capacity: 50-60%/year15-20X cheaper/bit than DRAMMagnetic disk technology: 40%/year15-25X cheaper/bit then Flash300-500X cheaper/bit than DRAM,Trends in Technology,2024/3/1

29、7,23,Bandwidth and Latency,Bandwidth or throughputTotal work done in a given time10,000-25,000X improvement for processors and networks300-1200X improvement for disks and memoryLatency or response timeTime between s

30、tart and completion of an event30-80X improvement for processors and networks 6-8X improvement for memory and disks,Trends in Technology,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),24,Bandwidth and Latency,,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Log-log plot of bandwidth a

31、nd latency milestones,2024/3/17,25,Single Processor Performance,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),26,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),27,Power & Energy,,,Power,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),28,Intel 80386 consumed ~ 2 W3.3 GHz Intel Core i7 consumes 130 W

32、Heat must be dissipated from 1.5 x 1.5 cm chipThis is the limit of what can be cooled by air,Trends in Power and Energy,Limiting Force: Power Density,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),29,Conventional Wisdom in Computer Architecture,O

33、ld Conventional Wisdom: Power is free, Transistors expensiveNew Conventional Wisdom: “Power wall” Power expensive, Transistors free (Can put more on chip than can afford to turn on)Old CW: Sufficient increasing Instruc

34、tion-Level Parallelism via compilers, innovation (Out-of-order, speculation, VLIW, …)New CW: “ILP wall” law of diminishing returns on more HW for ILP Old CW: Multiplies are slow, Memory access is fastNew CW: “Memory w

35、all” Memory slow, multiplies fast (200 clock cycles to DRAM memory, 4 clocks for multiply)Old CW: Uniprocessor performance 2X / 1.5 yrsNew CW: Power Wall + ILP Wall + Memory Wall = Brick WallUniprocessor performance

36、now 2X / 5(?) yrs? Sea change in chip design: multiple “cores” (2X processors per chip / ~ 2 years)More, simpler processors are more power efficient,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),30,Sea Change in Chip Design,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué)

37、,31,Intel 4004 (1971): 4-bit processor,2312 transistors, 0.4 MHz, 10 micron PMOS, 11 mm2 chip,Processor is the new transistor?,RISC II (1983): 32-bit, 5 stage pipeline, 40,760 transistors, 3 MHz, 3 micron NMOS, 60 mm

38、2 chip,125 mm2 chip, 0.065 micron CMOS = 2312 RISC II+FPU+Icache+DcacheRISC II shrinks to ~ 0.02 mm2 at 65 nmCaches via DRAM or 1 transistor SRAM?,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.32,,“We are dedicating all of our future p

39、roduct development to multicore designs. … This is a sea change in computing”Paul Otellini, President, Intel (2004) Difference is all microprocessor companies have switched to multiprocessors (AMD, Intel, IBM, Sun; all

40、 new Apples 2+ CPUs) ? Procrastination penalized: 2X sequential perf. / 5 yrs? Biggest programming challenge: from 1 to 2 CPUs,ManyCore Chips: The future is here,“ManyCore” refers to many processors/chip64? 128? Har

41、d to say exact boundaryHow to program these?Use 2 CPUs for video/audioUse 1 for word processor, 1 for browser76 for virus checking???Something new is clearly needed here…,Intel 80-core multicore chip (Feb 2007)80 s

42、imple coresTwo FP-engines / coreMesh-like network100 million transistors65nm feature sizeIntel Single-Chip Cloud Computer (August 2010)24 “tiles” with two IA cores per tile 24-router mesh network with 256 GB/s

43、 bisection bandwidth4 integrated DDR3 memory controllersHardware support for message-passing,,,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.33,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.34,The End of the Uniprocessor Era,Single biggest change in the

44、history of computing systems,——摘自 Berkeyley CS252,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),35,,,,,,,Instruction Set Architecture,Pipelining, Hazard Resolution,Superscalar, Reordering, Prediction, Speculation,Vector, VLIW, DSP, Reconfigur

45、ation,Addressing,Protection,Exception Handling,,L1 Cache,,L2 Cache,,DRAM,,Disks, WORM, Tape,Coherence,Bandwidth,Latency,Emerging TechnologiesInterleavingBus protocols,RAID,VLSI,Input/Output and Storage,MemoryHiera

46、rchy,,,Pipelining and Instruction Level Parallelism,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)研究的內(nèi)容,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),36,M,,,Interconnection Network,S,,,,,P,,M,,P,,M,,P,,M,,P,,° ° °,Topologies,Routing,Bandwidth,Latency,Relia

47、bility,Network Interfaces,Shared Memory,Message Passing,Data Parallelism,Processor-Memory-Switch,MultiprocessorsNetworks and Interconnections,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)研究內(nèi)容（續(xù)）,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),37,1950s to 1960s: 體系結(jié)構(gòu)課程：運算器1970s to 19

48、80s中: 體系結(jié)構(gòu)課程:指令集設(shè)計1990s: 體系結(jié)構(gòu)課程：CPU設(shè)計，存儲系統(tǒng)設(shè)計，I/O系統(tǒng)設(shè)計，多處理器，網(wǎng)絡(luò)2000s: 體系結(jié)構(gòu)課程：非 Von-Neumann 結(jié)構(gòu), 可配置體系結(jié)構(gòu)等, 多核，片上網(wǎng)絡(luò)，并行編程模式、低功耗設(shè)計等2010s: Self Adapting Systems? Self Organizing Structures? DNA System/ Quantum Computing?,計算機體系

49、結(jié)構(gòu)課程內(nèi)容的變化,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),38,體系結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計是循環(huán)漸進(jìn)的過程:Search the possible design space Make selections Evaluate the selections made,Bad Ideas,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計過程,Good measurement tools are required to accurately evaluate the select

50、ion.,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),39,Design,Imple-mentation,計算機工程方法學(xué),體系結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)展的驅(qū)動力,40,Applications,Technology,,,Applications suggest how to improve technology, provide revenue to fund development,Improved technologies make new appli

51、cations possible,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),41,本課程的主要內(nèi)容,5 部分內(nèi)容Simple machine design (ISAs, Iron Law, simple pipelines) （Chapter 1, Appendix A, Appendix C)Memory hierarchy (DRAM, caches, optimizations) plus virtual memory syste

52、ms, exceptions, interrupts (Chapter 2，Appendix B)Complex pipelining (score-boarding, out-of-order issue) (Chapter 3) Explicitly parallel processors (vector machines, VLIW machines, multithreaded machines) (Chapter

53、4) Multiprocessor architectures (memory models, cache coherence, synchronization, ) (Chapter 5,Chapter 6),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),42,課程目標(biāo),掌握計算機系統(tǒng)定量分析的基本方法和技術(shù)深入理解提高CPU性能的基本方法深入理解存儲系統(tǒng)的基本原理和基本的優(yōu)化方法理解數(shù)據(jù)級并

54、行、線程級并行以及請求級并行的基本原理和方法,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),43,課程安排,授課授課總學(xué)時60學(xué)時，實驗30學(xué)時星期三 (7,8) 3C221、五（7，8）3C223評分平時作業(yè) 10％實驗 30％期中考試 25％期末考試 35％,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),44,教材與主要參考書,John L. Hennessy, David A. Patt

55、ernson, Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach. Fifth Edition. 機械工業(yè)出版社，2012David A. Patternson, John L. Hennessy, Computer Organization & Design : The Hardware/Software Interface, Third Edition. San Francis

56、co: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc. 2005張晨曦等，計算機系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)教程，清華大學(xué)出版社Berkeley CS152, CS252Elsevier Pte LtdAcknowledgements,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),45,關(guān)于作弊,作業(yè)實驗考試（測驗）,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),46,為什么學(xué)這門課,深入理解計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)有助于:Design bette

57、r computer architecturesThere are still many challenges left Example: the CPU-memory gap…….Write better operating systemsNeed to re-evaluate the current assumptions and tradeoffsExample: gigabit networksWrite bett

58、er compilersModern computers need better optimizing compilers and better programming languagesWrite better programsUnderstand the performance implications of algorithms, data structures, and programming language choic

59、es,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),47,小結(jié)－計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)、組織和實現(xiàn),指令級結(jié)構(gòu)(Instruction Set Architecture)研究軟、硬件功能分配以及機器級界面的確定，既由機器語言程序設(shè)計者或編譯程序設(shè)計者所看到的機器物理系統(tǒng)的抽象或定義。但它不包括機器內(nèi)部的數(shù)據(jù)流和控制流、邏輯設(shè)計和器件設(shè)計等。計算機組織(Computer Organization)：ISA的邏輯實現(xiàn)，包括機器級內(nèi)的數(shù)據(jù)流和控制流的組成以

60、及邏輯設(shè)計等。它著眼于機器級內(nèi)各事件的排序方式與控制機構(gòu)、各部件的功能以及各部件間的聯(lián)系。 計算機實現(xiàn)（Computer Implementation）是指計算機組成的物理實現(xiàn)，包括處理機、主存等部件的物理結(jié)構(gòu)，器件的集成度和速度，器件、模塊、插件、底板的劃分與連接，專用器件的設(shè)計，微組裝技術(shù)，信號傳輸，電源、冷卻及整機裝配技術(shù)等。它著眼于器件技術(shù)和微組裝技術(shù)，其中，器件技術(shù)在實現(xiàn)技術(shù)中起著主導(dǎo)作用。計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)＝ISA + or

61、ganizaiton + hardware,Summary,計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)的基本概念I(lǐng)SA+Organization+Implementation本課程將涉及的主要內(nèi)容簡單機器設(shè)計（ISA, 基本流水線）指令級并行存儲系統(tǒng) (Cache, Virtual Memory)復(fù)雜流水線 （動態(tài)指令流調(diào)度、動態(tài)分支預(yù)測）顯式并行處理器（向量處理器、VLIW，多線程處理）多處理器結(jié)構(gòu)體系結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計面臨的新問題 Power

62、Wall + ILP Wall + Memory Wall = Brick Wall,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),48,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.49,1.1 引論計算機體系結(jié)構(gòu)的基本概念計算機市場的變化現(xiàn)代計算機系統(tǒng)發(fā)展趨勢1.2 定量分析技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)計算機系統(tǒng)評價計算機性能度量性能設(shè)計和評測的基本原則系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)評價標(biāo)準(zhǔn),Chapter1 量化設(shè)計與分析基礎(chǔ),2024/3/17,中國科

63、學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),1.2 定量分析技術(shù)基礎(chǔ),計算機系統(tǒng)評價計算機性能度量性能設(shè)計和評測的基本原則系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)評價標(biāo)準(zhǔn),Chapter1.50,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.51,客戶 vs. 設(shè)計者,客戶：給定一組機器，哪個性能最好?價格最低?性/價比最高（performance / cost） ?設(shè)計者：面臨的設(shè)計選擇： 最大限度的提高性能價格最低?性/價比最高（performance / cost

64、） ? 我們需要有基本的評價標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和方法我們的目標(biāo)是理解性能和成本 與體系結(jié)構(gòu)選擇的關(guān)系,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.52,評價指標(biāo),執(zhí)行時間（CPU Time、Wall-clock Time, Elapsed Time）帶寬 （Bandwidth）、延遲（Latency）峰值速度 （Peak Performance）負(fù)載 （load）、開銷 （Overhead）利用率 （Utilizatio

65、n Ratio），吞吐率 （Throughput）加速比 （Speedup）效率 （Efficiency）基準(zhǔn)測試 Benchmark微基準(zhǔn)測試 Micro-benchmark：測量系統(tǒng)某一方面的分離性能, 如核心程序,合成測試程序等 宏基準(zhǔn)測試 Macro-benchmark：測量系統(tǒng)總體性能, 如實際應(yīng)用程序等 響應(yīng)時間（Response Time）……,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapt

66、er1.53,系統(tǒng)評價的基本作用,用性能評價軟件包，了解系統(tǒng)性能， 對用戶選型和配置提出建議針對不同應(yīng)用，不同軟硬件配置進(jìn)行性能評價和優(yōu)化，對用戶所使用系統(tǒng)提出性能上的建議建立理論模型，對系統(tǒng)的性能進(jìn)行預(yù)測,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.54,Benchmarks,沒有一個標(biāo)準(zhǔn)能反映計算機系統(tǒng)的全部性能，它們代表的只是性能的一個側(cè)面。常用的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)定點性能浮點性能Web服務(wù)性能數(shù)據(jù)處理性能系統(tǒng)軟件性

67、能科學(xué)與工程計算性能,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.55,° Time to do the task (Execution Time)– execution time, response time, latency° Tasks per day, hour, week, sec, ns. .. (Performance)– throughput, bandwidth這兩者經(jīng)

68、常會有沖突的。,哪個性能高？,性能的兩種含義,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.56,之一：性能定義為單位時間完成的任務(wù)數(shù)bigger is better之二：如果我們更關(guān)心響應(yīng)時間（response time）“ X 性能是Y的n倍” 是指,性能定義,2024/3/17,中國科學(xué)技術(shù)大學(xué),Chapter1.57,Time of Concord vs. Boeing 747?Concord is 13

69、50 mph / 610 mph = 2.2 times faster = 6.5 hours / 3 hoursThroughput of Concorde vs. Boeing 747 ?Concord is 178,200 pmph / 286,700 pmph = 0.62 “times faster”Boein