教學(xué)方法手冊外文翻譯

1、<p>　　本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）</p><p>　　外 文 翻 譯</p><p><b>　　原文：</b></p><p>　　Tools For Teaching</p><p>　　Motivating Students </p><p>　　Researchers ha

2、ve begun to identify those aspects of the teaching situation that enhance students' self-motivation (Lowman, 1984; Lucas, 1990; Weinert and Kluwe, 1987; Bligh, 1971). To encourage students to become self-motivated in

3、dependent learners,instructors can do the following:</p><p>　　Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they can do well.</p><p>　　Ensure opportunities for

4、 students’ success by assigning tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult.</p><p>　　Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.</p><p>　　Create an atmosphere that is o

5、pen and positive.</p><p>　　Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.</p><p>　　Research has also shown that good everyday teaching practices can do more to counter

6、student apathy than special efforts to attack motivation directly (Ericksen, 1978). Most students respond positively to a well-organized course taught by an enthusiastic instructor who has a genuine interest in students

7、and what they learn. Thus activities you undertake to promote learning will also enhance students' motivation.</p><p>　　General Strategies</p><p>　　Capitalize on students' existing needs

8、. Students learn best when incentives for learning in a classroom satisfy their own motives for enrolling in the course. Some of the needs your students may bring to the classroom are the need to learn something in order

9、 to complete a particular task or activity, the need to seek new experiences, the need to perfect skills, the need to overcome challenges, the need to become competent, the need to succeed and do well, the need to feel i

10、nvolved and to interac</p><p>　　Make students active participants in learning. Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, solving. Passivity dampens students' motivation and curiosity

11、. Pose questions. Don't tell students something when you can ask them. Encourage students to suggest approaches to a problem or to guess the results of an experiment. Use small group work. (Source: Lucas, 1990)</p

12、><p>　　Incorporating Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students</p><p>　　Help students set achievable goals for themselves. Failure to attain unrealistic goals can disappoint and frustrate stud

13、ents. Encourage students to focus on their continued improvement, not just on their grade on any one test or assignment. Help students evaluate their progress by encouraging them to critique their own work, analyze their

14、 strengths, and work on their weaknesses. For example, consider asking students to submit self-evaluation forms with one or two assignments. (Sources: Cashin, 1</p><p>　　Tell students what they need to do to

15、 succeed in your course. Don't let your students struggle to figure out what is expected of them. Reassure students that they can do well in your course, and tell them exactly what they must do to succeed. Say someth

16、ing to the effect that "If you can handle the examples on these problem sheets, you can pass the exam. People who have trouble with these examples can ask me for extra help." Or instead of saying, "You'

17、;re way behind," tell the student, "Here is on</p><p>　　Strengthen students' self-motivation. Avoid messages that reinforce your power as an instructor or that emphasize extrinsic rewards. Inst

18、ead of saying, "I require," "you must," or "you should," stress "I think you will find. . . " or "I will be interested in your reaction." (Source: Lowman, 1990)</p>

19、<p>　　Be enthusiastic about your subject. An instructor's enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student motivation. If you become bored or apathetic, students will too. Typically, an instructor's enthusiasm co

20、mes from confidence, excitement about the content, and genuine pleasure in teaching. If you find yourself uninterested in the material, think back to what attracted you to the field and bring those aspects of the subject

21、 matter to life for your students. Or challenge yourself to devise the most excit</p><p>　　Structuring the Course to Motivate Students </p><p>　　Work from students' strengths and interests.

22、Find out why students are enrolled in your course, how they feel about the subject matter, and what their expectations are. Then try to devise examples, case studies, or assignments that relate the course content to stud

23、ents' interests and experiences. For instance, a chemistry professor might devote some lecture time to examining the contributions of chemistry to resolving environmental problems. Explain how the content and objecti

24、ves of your course </p><p>　　Vary your teaching methods. Variety reawakens students' involvement in the course and their motivation. Break the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities an

25、d methods in your course: role playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers, or small group work. (Source: Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)</p>&l

26、t;p>　　De-emphasizing Grades </p><p>　　Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades. Ames and Ames (1990) report on two secondary school math teachers. One teacher graded every homework assignment and

27、 counted homework as 30 percent of a student's final grade. The second teacher told students to spend a fixed amount of time on their homework (thirty minutes a night) and to bring questions to class about problems t

28、hey could not complete. This teacher graded homework as satisfactory or unsatisfactory, gave students the opportunity </p><p>　　Researchers recommend de-emphasizing grading by eliminating complex systems of

29、credit points; they also advise against trying to use grades to control nonacademic behavior (for example, lowering grades for missed classes) (Forsyth and McMillan, 1991; Lowman 1990). Instead, assign ungraded written w

30、ork, stress the personal satisfaction of doing assignments, and help students measure their progress. </p><p>　　Motivating Students by Responding to Their Work </p><p>　　Give students feedback a

31、s quickly as possible. Return tests and papers promptly, and reward success publicly and immediately. Give students some indication of how well they have done and how to improve. Rewards can be as simple as saying a stud

32、ent's response was good, with an indication of why it was good, or mentioning the names of contributors: "Cherry's point about pollution really synthesized the ideas we had been discussing." (Source: Ca

33、shin, 1979) </p><p>　　Motivating Students to Do the Reading </p><p>　　Ask nonthreatening questions about the reading. Initially pose general questions that do not create tension or feelings of r

34、esistance: "Can you give me one or two items from the chapter that seem important?" "What section of the reading do you think we should review?" "What item in the reading surprised you?" &qu

35、ot;What topics in the chapter can you apply to your own experience?" (Source: "When They Don't Do the Reading," 1989) </p><p>　　Use class time as a reading period. If you are trying to lea

36、d a discussion and find that few students have completed the reading assignment, consider asking students to read the material for the remainder of class time. Have them read silently or call on students to read aloud an

37、d discuss the key points. Make it clear to students that you are reluctantly taking this unusual step because they have not completed the assignment. </p><p>　　Give a written assignment to those students who

38、 have not done the reading. Some faculty ask at the beginning of the class who has completed the reading. Students who have not read the material are given a written assignment and dismissed. Those who have read the mate

39、rial stay and participate in class discussion. The written assignment is not graded but merely acknowledged. This technique should not be used more than once a term. (Source: "When They Don't Do the Reading,&quo

40、t; 1989) </p><p>　　Source: Barbara Gross Davis. Tools For Teaching. Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1993.</p><p><b>　　譯文：</b></p><p><b>　　教學(xué)方法手冊</b><

41、;/p><p><b>　　激發(fā)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)</b></p><p>　　研究人員已經(jīng)開始對能夠促進(jìn)學(xué)生自我激勵(lì)的教學(xué)因素進(jìn)行研究(Lowman, 1984; Lucas, 1990; Weinert and Kluwe, 1987; Bligh, 1971)。為鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生成為能夠自我激勵(lì)的獨(dú)立的學(xué)習(xí)者，教師可以做到以下幾方面：</p><p>　

42、　經(jīng)常給學(xué)生提供及時(shí)、積極的反饋，增強(qiáng)學(xué)生對于成功的信心。</p><p>　　布置的作業(yè)應(yīng)難易適中，確保學(xué)生成功的機(jī)會(huì)。</p><p>　　幫助學(xué)生充分認(rèn)識(shí)到教學(xué)材料對于自身的意義和價(jià)值。</p><p>　　營造一種開放、積極的學(xué)習(xí)氛圍。</p><p>　　讓學(xué)生感到自己是這個(gè)學(xué)習(xí)團(tuán)體中的重要成員。</p><p&

43、gt;　　研究還表明，生動(dòng)的日常教學(xué)活動(dòng)能夠改變學(xué)生對學(xué)習(xí)的冷漠態(tài)度，這比專門采取措施直接激發(fā)談們的積極性更有效(Ericksen, 1978)。如果教師充滿激情，對學(xué)生和他們的學(xué)習(xí)情況真正關(guān)心，課程條理清晰，那么，大多數(shù)學(xué)生會(huì)作出積極的反應(yīng)。因此，你為幫助學(xué)生而采取的教學(xué)行為也能提高學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性。</p><p><b>　　一般性策略</b></p><p>

44、　　滿足學(xué)生的需求。如果課堂上促進(jìn)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的動(dòng)力能夠滿足他們選修這門課的目的，那么，學(xué)生會(huì)取得最佳學(xué)習(xí)學(xué)習(xí)效果。學(xué)生參加該課程的學(xué)習(xí)可能是為了滿足以下一些需求：完成某項(xiàng)具體任務(wù)；尋求新的經(jīng)歷；完善自身的技能；戰(zhàn)勝挑戰(zhàn)；獲得能力；獲得成功；與他人交流，獲得成就感。這些需求若能得到滿足將會(huì)對學(xué)生很有意義，因?yàn)檫@對學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的激勵(lì)作用比分?jǐn)?shù)更為有效。因此，你可以根據(jù)這些需求來設(shè)計(jì)作業(yè)、課堂活動(dòng)以及討論問題。(資料來源：McMillan and

45、Forsyth, 1991)</p><p>　　讓學(xué)生成為主動(dòng)的學(xué)習(xí)參與者。學(xué)生常常在操作、寫作、設(shè)計(jì)、創(chuàng)造以及解決問題的過程中學(xué)到知識(shí)。被動(dòng)的學(xué)習(xí)會(huì)減弱學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)興趣和好奇心。因此，教師要提問。如果你可以采取提問的方式，就不要直接告訴他們你要講的內(nèi)容。鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生尋找解決問題的方法，或?qū)?shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果進(jìn)行猜測。組織小組學(xué)習(xí)。(資料來源： Lucas, 1990)</p><p>　　采取積極的教

46、學(xué)行為，增強(qiáng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)</p><p>　　幫助學(xué)生自己樹立可實(shí)現(xiàn)的目標(biāo)。學(xué)生如果不能達(dá)到不切實(shí)際的目標(biāo)，就會(huì)感到失望、惱怒。應(yīng)鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生持續(xù)努力，不要只看重某一次考試或作業(yè)的成績。鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生自己評改作業(yè)，分析自身優(yōu)勢，克服自身缺點(diǎn)，幫助他們對自己的進(jìn)步進(jìn)行評估。例如，可以要求學(xué)生針對某一次或兩次作業(yè)填寫自我評估表。（資料來源：Cashin, 1979; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)&l

47、t;/p><p>　　告訴學(xué)生學(xué)好該課程的必要條件。不要讓學(xué)生費(fèi)力地猜測你對他們有什么期望。讓他們相信自己能夠?qū)W好該課程，準(zhǔn)確地告訴他們獲得成功必須做到什么。你可以這樣說：“如果你能夠解決這幾張練習(xí)上的問題，就能夠通過考試。如果對這些題目有問題，可以來問我。”不要對學(xué)生說：“你落后了很多。”而應(yīng)該這樣對他說：“有一個(gè)辦法可以幫助你學(xué)習(xí)這些資料，需要我?guī)椭銌?？?資料來源： Cashin, 1979; Tiberiu

48、s, 1990)</p><p>　　激勵(lì)學(xué)生自我勉勵(lì)。不要表露強(qiáng)調(diào)教師權(quán)威地位或外在獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)的信息。不要說：“我要求”，“你們必須”等，而應(yīng)該強(qiáng)調(diào)：“我認(rèn)為你自己可以……”，或者“我對你的想法比較有興趣?！?資料來源： Lowman, 1990)</p><p>　　教師對所教科目要充滿熱情。教師的教學(xué)熱情是提高學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)積極性的一個(gè)決定性因素。如果你自己對上課感到乏味或者沒有熱情，學(xué)生也會(huì)變

49、成這樣。一般來說，教師的熱情來源于自信、對課程內(nèi)容的激情以及對教學(xué)的真心熱愛。如果你發(fā)現(xiàn)自己對這些教材不感興趣，可以回憶一下是什么吸引你進(jìn)入這個(gè)領(lǐng)域的，然后將那些內(nèi)容再次呈現(xiàn)給你的學(xué)生?；蛘?，無論教材本身看起來多么枯燥，你可以挑戰(zhàn)自己，設(shè)計(jì)一種有趣的方法來呈現(xiàn)這些內(nèi)容。</p><p>　　設(shè)計(jì)有效的課程結(jié)構(gòu)，增強(qiáng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)</p><p>　　從學(xué)生的能力和興趣出發(fā)。了解學(xué)生選修該課

50、程的原因、對課程的想法以及他們的期望。然后，根據(jù)他們的興趣和經(jīng)歷設(shè)計(jì)例證、案例分析或作業(yè)。例如，一位化學(xué)教授在上課時(shí)抽出一部分時(shí)間討論了化學(xué)對解決環(huán)境問題所起的作用。你還可以向?qū)W生說明這門課程的內(nèi)容和目標(biāo)對幫助他們實(shí)現(xiàn)自身的教育、職業(yè)或個(gè)人發(fā)展目標(biāo)有什么作用。(資料來源： Brock, 1976; Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)</p><p>　　變換教學(xué)方法。變化能夠重新吸引學(xué)生參與學(xué)習(xí)

51、并再次激發(fā)他們的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)。因此，在教學(xué)中應(yīng)打破常規(guī)，運(yùn)用不同的教學(xué)方法：分角色表演、辯論、集體討論、演示、案例分析、視聽教學(xué)、嘉賓講課，或者小組學(xué)習(xí)。(資料來源： Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)</p><p><b>　　降低分?jǐn)?shù)的重要性</b></p><p>　　強(qiáng)調(diào)掌握和學(xué)習(xí)，不要強(qiáng)調(diào)分?jǐn)?shù)。艾梅斯和艾梅斯（Ames and Ames，1

52、990）描述了兩位中學(xué)數(shù)學(xué)教師。一位教師對每次家庭作業(yè)都打分，作業(yè)的成績占到期末總評分的30%。另一位教師給學(xué)生規(guī)定了做家庭作業(yè)的時(shí)間（每晚30分鐘），讓他們把無法完成的問題帶到課堂上來。這位老師把作業(yè)成績分為滿意或不滿意，并給他們重做的機(jī)會(huì)，作業(yè)的成績?yōu)檎计谀┛傇u的10%。雖然作業(yè)成績只占課程總成績的一小部分，但這位教師卻能夠更好地激發(fā)學(xué)生做作業(yè)的積極性。在第一位教師的課堂上，有些學(xué)生寧愿選擇放棄，也不愿冒自己的學(xué)習(xí)能力可能遭到較低評

53、價(jià)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。而在第二位教師的課堂上，學(xué)生每次做作業(yè)時(shí)不會(huì)擔(dān)心自己的自尊心是否會(huì)遭到傷害，而是想學(xué)習(xí)知識(shí)。在這里，錯(cuò)誤被認(rèn)為是可以接受的，是可以給人以借鑒的。</p><p>　　研究人員建議，教師不要采用復(fù)雜的評分系統(tǒng)，這樣可以降低分?jǐn)?shù)的重要性。他們還建議不要用分?jǐn)?shù)限制非學(xué)術(shù)行為（例如，因逃課而降低分?jǐn)?shù)）(Forsyth and McMillan, 1991; Lowman 1990)。可以布置一些不用評分的作業(yè)，

54、強(qiáng)調(diào)完成作業(yè)能夠帶給個(gè)人的滿足感，并幫助學(xué)生衡量自己的進(jìn)步。</p><p>　　對學(xué)生的在作業(yè)進(jìn)行反饋，調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性</p><p>　　盡快給學(xué)生反饋意見。及時(shí)返還試卷和論文，公開、及時(shí)地對他們的成功給予獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。給學(xué)生一些暗示，讓他們了解自己的成績并懂得如何提高自己。獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)的形式可以是很簡單地說學(xué)生的回答很好，同時(shí)暗示為什么認(rèn)為這個(gè)回答好，也可以公開發(fā)言者的姓名：“查理關(guān)于污染的觀

55、點(diǎn)確實(shí)綜合了我們一直在討論的觀點(diǎn)?！保ㄙY料來源：Cashin，1079）</p><p><b>　　鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生閱讀</b></p><p>　　就閱讀材料提出一些容易回答的問題。最初提出的問題不要令學(xué)生感到緊張或抵觸：“你們能夠指出這一章中看起來很重要的1—2點(diǎn)內(nèi)容嗎？”“你們認(rèn)為文章的哪一部分需要重新看一下？”“文章中有什么內(nèi)容讓你們感到驚訝呢？”“文章中有哪些內(nèi)容

56、可以應(yīng)用到你們自己的經(jīng)歷上呢？”（資料來源：《當(dāng)他們不想閱讀時(shí)》，1989）</p><p>　　要求學(xué)生在上課時(shí)間閱讀。如果你想組織一場討論，但發(fā)現(xiàn)幾乎沒有學(xué)生完成布置的閱讀作業(yè)，那么，可以考慮讓學(xué)生在課堂的剩余時(shí)間閱讀這些材料。讓他們默讀，或者請學(xué)生大聲朗讀，然后討論要點(diǎn)。但要讓學(xué)生明白，正是因?yàn)樗麄儧]有完成閱讀作業(yè)，你才迫不得已采取這樣的做法，其實(shí)你并不愿意這樣做。</p><p>

57、　　給那些沒有完成閱讀作業(yè)的學(xué)生布置寫作作業(yè)。有些教師在開始上課時(shí)就問學(xué)生哪些人完成了閱讀作業(yè)，然后給那些沒有完成的學(xué)生布置一份寫作作業(yè)，讓他們離開課堂。而那些完成了閱讀作業(yè)的學(xué)生則留下來進(jìn)行課堂討論。這些寫作作業(yè)只需要讓老師過目，不記分。但這種方法每個(gè)學(xué)期最多只能用一次。（資料來源：《當(dāng)他們不想閱讀時(shí)》，1989）</p><p>　　出處：巴巴拉·格羅斯·戴維斯.教學(xué)方法手冊.約翰威立公司