[雙語翻譯]pm2.5外文翻譯--pm2.5對城市室內(nèi)環(huán)境的影響綜述（英文）

1、Contents lists available at ScienceDirectSustainable Cities and Societyjournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scsImpact of PM2.5 in indoor urban environments: A reviewNuno R. Martins?, Guilherme Carrilho da Graça

2、Instituto Dom Luiz, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, PortugalA R T I C L E I N F OKeywords:ReviewPM2.5Fine particlesParticle exposureIndoor airAir quality modelingA B S T R A C TAirbor

3、ne fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a pollutant that is found in all urban environments. PM2.5 is pre-dominantly generated by traffic and domestic fuel combustion and has significant negative health impacts. Theever-gr

4、owing urban population spends most of their time in indoor environments where it is exposed to PM2.5that is brought in from the outdoor environment by ventilation airflow. Several studies show this inflow ofoutdoor PM2.5

5、, combined with internal sources (e.g. indoor combustion, particle re-suspension) can lead to an I/O ratio above one: indoor air quality is lower than outdoors. The most common approach to limit ventilationinflow of PM2.

6、5 is the use of mechanical ventilation systems with cloth filters that can significantly increaseventilation fan energy consumption.Decreasing exposure to PM2.5 is challenging, requiring a thorough understanding of PM2.5

7、′s origin and theinteraction between buildings and their surrounding environment. This review of the impact of PM2.5 in indoorurban environments summarizes existing research in this area, specifically, the main PM2.5 sou

8、rces and sinks inoutdoor and indoor urban environments, the PM2.5 exposure limits that are currently applicable throughout theworld, the main socio-economic impacts of exposure to PM2.5 and the most promising solutions t

9、o minimizeindoor exposure.1. IntroductionThe term air pollution refers to a group of airborne pollutants thatare known to contribute to decreased life expectancy (Baklanov,Molina, Lave ? PM10: particles with an aerodyn

10、amic diameter below 10 μm; ? PM2.5: particles with a diameter below 2.5 μm, also known as fineparticles; ? CP: coarse particles are the fraction of PM10 that does not includePM2.5; ? UFP: ultrafine particles (UFP) are pa

11、rticles with a diameter below100 nm, which can also be referred as PM0.1.Early research on the effects of human exposure to airborne PM usedPM10 as the preferred indicator (Englert, 2004, Polichetti, Cocco,Spinali, Trima

12、rco, Received in revised form 17 July 2018; Accepted 17 July 2018? Corresponding author.E-mail address: nmmartins@fc.ul.pt (N.R. Martins).Sustainable Cities and Society 42 (2018) 259–275Available online 29 July 20182210

13、-6707/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Tused to predict indoor PM2.5 levels.? The question answered in Section 6 is: What are the main health andsocio-economic impacts of the exposure to PM2.5?Health impact

14、s, as well as the social and economic consequencesthat arise from the continued exposure to fine particle pollution areenumerated in this section.? The question answered in Section 7 is: What solutions have beenproposed

15、to minimize indoor exposure and its resulting impacts?Finally, this section presents several solutions that have been pro-jected and applied to minimize the exposure to PM2.5 in both theoutdoor and indoor environments.2.

16、 PM2.5 in outdoor urban environmentsFine particles in the PM2.5 size range can be directly emitted intothe atmosphere, a process known as primary emission of PM2.5, orresult from chemical reactions involving precursor ga

17、ses (secondaryformation of PM2.5) (Velasco, Turkiewicz, Najita, Tunno et al., 2016). Globally, traffic is responsible forapproximately one quarter of urban outdoor PM2.5 levels, although inSouth and Southeast Asia, Sout

18、h America and Southwest Europe, traf-fic’s share of PM2.5 concentration reaches 30 to 37% (Karagulian et al.,2015).Industry and power generation contribute to only 15% of the globalurban PM2.5 levels, since these sources

19、 are no longer located withinmajor cities in most developed countries. However, industry and powergeneration are still significant sources (27–34 %) of PM2.5 pollution inSouth Asia, Southern China, Japan and the Middle E

20、ast (Karagulianet al., 2015). PM2.5 emission due to domestic fuel burning has alsodecreased in most developed countries and currently accounts for 20%of global urban PM2.5. Still, it is the most significant source in Cen

21、traland Eastern Europe and in Africa (32–34 %) (Karagulian et al., 2015).Anthropogenic secondary particle formation, such as the oxidationof sulfur and nitrogen oxides into ammonium sulfate and nitrate, re-spectively (Ve

22、lasco et al., 2005), accounts for 22% of urban PM2.5worldwide. However, in most developed nations, including the Re-public of Korea, Canada, the United States and Western Europe, thisfraction increases to between 44 and

23、62% (Karagulian et al., 2015).PM2.5 can also originate from natural sources, which include dustfrom nonurban and nonagricultural soils, sea salt, combustion emis-sions from wildfires and particles that result from the ox

24、idation of vo-latile organic compounds from vegetation (Marlier et al., 2013; Velascoet al., 2005). These natural sources account for 18% of the total globalurban PM2.5 levels. Japan and the Middle East are the only regi

25、onswhere natural sources are the most significant source of PM2.5 pollu-tion (42 to 52%) (Karagulian et al., 2015).Although urban PM2.5 has a mostly local and anthropogenic origin(Chuang et al., 2016; Han, Zhou, Isley e

26、t al., 2017; Polidori,Kwon, Turpin, Ji Luo et al., 2017), whiledifferent building layouts have been found to either restrict or ease thedispersion of airborne particles (Mei, Wen, Xu, Zhu, Chithra Han, Zhou et al., 2

27、016; Luo et al.,2017; Qiu et al., 2017; Zhang Zhang, Jiang et al., 2017), from Northern China to the East ChinaSea region (Wang, Guo et al., 2015), from Eastern Siberia (Russia) toJapan (Ikemori, Honjyo, Yamagami, Chith

28、ra Luo et al., 2017; Tai, Mickley, Tiwari et al., 2013; Toro et al., 2014; Zhang Cheng et al., 2016; Motallebi, 1999; Toro et al., 2014) or throughoutthe year (Chithra Lu Wang, Wang, Zhang Zhang Zhou et al., 2015)

29、.However, lower temperatures are correlated with an increase in fossilfuel and biomass combustion as well as stagnant atmospheric condi-tions, therefore also increasing the concentration of PM2.5 (Motallebi,1999; Toro et

30、 al., 2014; Velasco et al., 2005). Humidity also has noconsistent correlation with PM2.5. Some components of PM2.5, such asnitrates and sulfates, see their concentration increase with relativehumidity, while the concentr

31、ation of other components, such as organicand elemental carbon, decreases with higher humidity levels (Chenget al., 2015; Kim et al., 2016; Tai et al., 2010; Wang, Zhong, He, Peng, Wang et al., 2018).Periodic variations

32、 in PM2.5 levels are observable in most urbanlocations, a direct consequence of the also periodic nature of local cli-mate and of PM2.5 sources. At the annual scale, the aforementionedincreased use of fossil fuel and bio

33、mass for heating and electricityproduction increases particle levels during the colder months of theyear in several places, including parts of California (Chow et al., 2006),Chile (Toro et al., 2014) and of India and Chi