長興機械裝配車間設(shè)計-土木工程廠房畢業(yè)論文前期材料-論述

1、<p>　　南 京 理 工 大 學(xué)</p><p>　　畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)前期工作材料</p><p>　　(姓 名) (專業(yè)技術(shù)職務(wù))</p><p><b>　　材 料 目 錄</b></p><p>　　2015年 11月</p><p>　　南

2、 京 理 工 大 學(xué)</p><p>　　畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)開題報告</p><p>　　2015年11 月26日</p><p><b>　　開題報告填寫要求</b></p><p>　　1．開題報告作為畢業(yè)設(shè)計（論文）答辯委員會對學(xué)生答辯資格審查的依據(jù)材料之一。此報告應(yīng)在指導(dǎo)教師指導(dǎo)下，由學(xué)生在畢業(yè)設(shè)計（論文）工作前期

3、內(nèi)完成，經(jīng)指導(dǎo)教師簽署意見及所在專業(yè)審查后生效；</p><p>　　2．開題報告內(nèi)容必須用黑墨水筆工整書寫或按教務(wù)處統(tǒng)一設(shè)計的電子文檔標(biāo)準(zhǔn)格式（可從繼續(xù)教育學(xué)院網(wǎng)站上下載）打印，禁止打印在其它紙上后剪貼，完成后應(yīng)及時交給指導(dǎo)教師簽署意見；</p><p>　　3．“文獻(xiàn)綜述”應(yīng)按論文的格式成文，并直接書寫（或打?。┰诒鹃_題報告第一欄目內(nèi)，學(xué)生寫文獻(xiàn)綜述的參考文獻(xiàn)應(yīng)不少于15篇（不包括辭典

4、、手冊）；</p><p>　　4．有關(guān)年月日等日期的填寫，應(yīng)當(dāng)按照國標(biāo)GB/T 7408—2005《數(shù)據(jù)元和交換格式、信息交換、日期和時間表示法》規(guī)定的要求，一律用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字書寫。如“2007年3月15日”或“2007-03-15”。</p><p>　　畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計（論 文）開 題 報 告</p><p>　　畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計（論 文）開 題 報 告</p

5、><p>　　畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計（論 文）開 題 報 告</p><p>　　南 京 理 工 大 學(xué)</p><p>　　畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)外文資料翻譯</p><p>　　學(xué)院（系）： 南京理工大學(xué)繼續(xù)教育學(xué)院 </p><p>　　專 業(yè)： 土木工程 </p&

6、gt;<p>　　姓 名： 韋保華 </p><p>　　學(xué) 號： 532110140316 </p><p>　　外文出處：Architecture in a Climate of Change，Page52-Page62</p><p>　　附

7、 件： 1.外文資料翻譯譯文；2.外文原文。 </p><p>　　注：請將該封面與附件裝訂成冊。</p><p>　　附件1：外文資料翻譯譯文</p><p>　　房屋設(shè)計中的低能耗技術(shù)</p><p>　　顯而易見，在工業(yè)化國家，最好的營救機會依賴于建筑環(huán)境，因為不論是在使用的建筑或者是在建設(shè)的建筑，都是最大的、單一的、間接地由化石燃料的

8、燃燒所引起的碳排放的源頭，而這些站了所有排放的50%。如果你加上為建造這些建筑在運輸上所產(chǎn)生的碳排放，英國政府估計這個數(shù)字會上升到75%。也就是在建成環(huán)境這個領(lǐng)域里，能夠簡單的容納如此快速的改變卻不產(chǎn)生負(fù)面效果。事實上，升級建筑，特別是那些較老較舊的房子，將會營造一個連鎖的良性循環(huán)。</p><p><b>　　一、施工系統(tǒng)</b></p><p>　　考慮到現(xiàn)在由全

9、球性變暖以及非化石燃料使用機會所帶來的的挑戰(zhàn)?，F(xiàn)在就是最好的時機去解決能量方程式一邊的需求如何作用到這一挑戰(zhàn)。建成環(huán)境是所有能耗中最大的消費者，在這里，住宅又以全英國28%的二氧化碳排放居于桿位。</p><p>　　在英國，一直就有用石頭建設(shè)住宅的出傳統(tǒng)，并且從十九世紀(jì)二十年代早期開始，這一習(xí)慣得到了廣泛的應(yīng)用。這是為了使一個極濕的外表面能不至于和其內(nèi)表面存在物理上的連接，這樣，墻的聯(lián)系被分開了，水也能夠通過防

10、水通排向外面。自從把熱源控制引進(jìn)來以后，最初人們認(rèn)為的保護(hù)能源比保護(hù)星球更重要的理念，已經(jīng)被廣泛的在建筑洞口絕熱材料的使用上。在一段很長的時間里，保護(hù)建筑的洞口是被強制命令的，并且一場由傳統(tǒng)主義者發(fā)起的保護(hù)“圣所”的戰(zhàn)爭也已經(jīng)持續(xù)了很久。失敗最終被承認(rèn)，通過BRE的大量研究我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，填滿建筑的洞口并不會提高潮氣穿透建筑的奉獻(xiàn)，事實上，通過洞口的潮氣反而減少了。</p><p>　　帶有外部絕熱材料的砌體墻面被廣泛

11、的在歐洲大陸實踐，在英國，他們甚至作為外立面的裝飾而使用。在康沃爾郡，PHA在面朝大海的地方用這種方法建了一棟住宅，肯能這就是最具挑戰(zhàn)的條件了。</p><p><b>　　砌體建筑的優(yōu)勢有：</b></p><p>　　●對于任何建筑公司而言，他都是一個熟悉并經(jīng)得住考驗的技術(shù)。</p><p>　　●他是一個使用壽命長，并且通常情況下不會產(chǎn)生

12、毀滅性災(zāi)難的建筑形式，盡管他還不是很完善。幾年前，普利茅斯一所大學(xué)建筑的整個屋頂突然坍塌，經(jīng)調(diào)查，墻的連接部分被腐蝕是這一事故的緣由。</p><p>　　●裸露的磚石結(jié)構(gòu)是一種低維護(hù)費的系統(tǒng)，如果奏效的話，維護(hù)費還會上升很大一部分。</p><p>　　●從能效的角度考慮，如果其有高密度的砌體內(nèi)墻和混凝土樓板，砌體住宅本身較高的比熱還將有一個很大的提升。</p><p

13、><b>　　1.1 框架建筑</b></p><p>　　大量住宅的建筑者開始熱衷于采用有磚石外墻的木構(gòu)架建筑，這使得他們他們看起來和砌體建筑一樣。他的吸引力在于如果基礎(chǔ)在空閑的地區(qū)進(jìn)行建設(shè)，建筑速度將會非常的快。然而這一系統(tǒng)仍然有一個不幸的歷史背景，因為在質(zhì)量控制方面它還存在著很多的缺點。這些突出的表現(xiàn)在那些不是很牢固或者不成熟的木材上?？蚣芙ㄖ臀蓓斠粯有枰莱睂印＜由夏窘Y(jié)構(gòu)以后

14、他將很難避免潮氣的滲透，在內(nèi)部固定方面也仍然存在著很多問題。對于那些純粹論者，最大的指責(zé)在于當(dāng)框架建筑迫切的需要一個以面板，屋面，石板或瓦片懸掛在外部結(jié)束的時候，這在某種程度上是不合邏輯的。</p><p>　　現(xiàn)在，鋼鐵工業(yè)大大促進(jìn)了為家庭而制的壓制鋼框架的應(yīng)用。伴隨新建筑材料在強度和耐久能力上的良好保證，即使施工速度很快，還是很有賣點的。</p><p>　　從能源角度看，框架建筑能夠

15、提供較高等級的隔絕效果，但是框架建筑有一個相對較低的比熱，除非其由地板和內(nèi)墻提供。</p><p><b>　　1.2 技術(shù)的創(chuàng)新</b></p><p>　　在英國，PIFS正在為新的技術(shù)努力。他們的原則底線是由絕熱材料制作的精確模數(shù)化得榫卯結(jié)構(gòu)的使用，通常這些是膨脹聚苯乙烯。因為他們可以被快速裝配，并填充上加氣水泥。當(dāng)混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)完成，將會變成一個更高效的絕熱墻，無

16、論是在內(nèi)部還是外部的安裝服務(wù)上。這樣，他將以小于0.11W/㎡K的成績得到一個U級評價。超過三層的建筑，鋼筋的增加還是必要的。</p><p>　　這一系統(tǒng)的優(yōu)勢在于：</p><p>　　●設(shè)計的靈活性：幾乎所有的形狀都是可以的。</p><p>　　●簡單且快速的建筑時間：適度的技術(shù)要求使得他在自家建筑中非常流行，經(jīng)驗豐富的建筑工人可以以每小時5平方米的速度用混

17、凝土進(jìn)行建設(shè)。</p><p>　　●最終的成果具有較高的建筑強度并且兼有比較不錯的比熱和隔熱等級。</p><p><b>　　二、日光設(shè)計</b></p><p>　　2.1 積極的日光設(shè)計</p><p>　　自從太陽驅(qū)動每個季節(jié)的變化以來，人們利用“日光設(shè)計”這一優(yōu)勢在建筑上就很合乎邏輯了。最基本的答復(fù)就是像“積

18、極地日光設(shè)計”一樣。因此，現(xiàn)在的建筑設(shè)計都會充分利用太陽能而非間接地通過其他方式。</p><p>　　通過的太陽輻射決定于一系列的因素：</p><p>　　●太陽對于建筑主立面的位置（太陽方位角和高度角）</p><p><b>　　●基地的定位和坡度</b></p><p><b>　　●基地現(xiàn)存的障礙物

19、</b></p><p>　　●基地外潛在的會遮擋陽光的物體</p><p>　　太陽輻射的一種評價方式是某種形式的太陽圖標(biāo)，最常使用的是立體太陽圖表，在這種圖標(biāo)里，一系列的射線和許多同心圓使得我們能夠得到遮擋物的日照分析。就像其他建筑一樣，用來標(biāo)繪。在相同的圖志上，一系列的太陽光路徑被繪制（通常情況下是每個月的第21天）；并且同樣也會把那天的時間標(biāo)識上。太陽光照射到遮擋物的外

20、輪廓所形成陰影的交叉口就是陽光和陰影的分割部分。通常情況下不同的緯度會有不同的圖志（一般在兩個緯度等級之內(nèi)）。</p><p>　　建筑自身對光線和陰影的影響也要被考慮進(jìn)來，圖解的、計算機預(yù)測技術(shù)可能受制于像在同一個日影儀下的物理模型測試的技術(shù)。</p><p>　　IES的“陽光投影”程序可以用電腦模擬從任何一個角度投射的太陽光和影。這是一個對于擁有一般技能的大學(xué)生都很容易掌握的程序。&

21、lt;/p><p>　　兩個建筑物之間的距離是很重要的，這樣可以避免在冬季獲得陽光最好的時候得不到足夠多的陽光。再有坡度的地塊內(nèi)，坡底的坡度和遮擋的等級之間存在一個決定性的關(guān)系。比如說，如果要在北緯50°的地方避免陽光被遮擋，北傾10°排列的建筑群之間的距離要比南傾10°的建筑群的間距多一倍。</p><p>　　大樹很明顯會遮擋陽光。但是如果他們是落葉植物，他們

22、將扮演兩重角色。在冬天，他可以是陽光通過他們進(jìn)行照射；在夏天，他又能提供相當(dāng)數(shù)量的陰影。</p><p>　　積極的陽光設(shè)計可以被分為三大類：</p><p><b>　　●直接獲得陽光</b></p><p><b>　　●間接獲得陽光</b></p><p>　　●附加日光間或者溫室</p

23、><p>　　這三種方式中的任何一種都是從不同角度利用“溫室效應(yīng)”，而這正是一種吸收和保留溫度的方法。溫室效應(yīng)在建筑上的應(yīng)用是模仿全有氣候變暖的過程，在建筑上，偶爾的太陽輻射是通過建筑主立面的窗戶透射進(jìn)來的，房屋內(nèi)表面吸收以后使得房間的溫度得到提高。然而，二次輻射所產(chǎn)生的熱量卻被玻璃窗阻隔在內(nèi)，因為這一波長要遠(yuǎn)比輻射進(jìn)來的長。二次輻射的輻射源是內(nèi)部墻面，他的溫度要比外面的溫度低很多，玻璃窗也正好可以將其反射到內(nèi)部。&

24、lt;/p><p>　　2.2 直接獲得陽光</p><p>　　直接獲得的建筑技術(shù)是集中絕大多數(shù)的玻璃窗在房間面朝太陽的一邊。太陽輻射可以直接進(jìn)入有關(guān)的房間，時隔30年之久的兩個例子是1967年作者在設(shè)菲爾德的住宅，和1998年由羅伯特和布倫達(dá)?瓦勒在霍克頓進(jìn)行的項目。主要的設(shè)計參數(shù)如下：</p><p>　　●能夠使陽光通過的孔隙必須在建筑面朝太陽的一面，在北半球，

25、其要在南方的±30°以內(nèi)。</p><p>　　●西向的窗戶將會提高房間過熱的風(fēng)險。</p><p>　　●現(xiàn)在，英國建筑學(xué)會要求，在進(jìn)行房屋建設(shè)過程中最少需要使用雙層的LOW-E玻璃。</p><p>　　●主要的居住空間需要設(shè)置在建筑面朝太陽的一側(cè)。</p><p>　　●樓板需要有較高的比熱來儲存熱量和釋放熱量，這將

26、降低房間內(nèi)溫度的波動。</p><p>　　●得益于較高的比熱，在日常熱量吸收和釋放循環(huán)中，只需要最上面那100毫米厚的樓板就足夠儲存熱量。超過這一厚度的樓板在儲存熱量上的提升別沒有太大的提高，但是在其他短期儲存能力上還是有好處的。</p><p>　　●相對于固體樓板，絕熱層應(yīng)放置在板面的下方。</p><p>　　●絕氣層應(yīng)始終在隔熱層溫度相對較高的一側(cè)。<

27、;/p><p>　　●厚地毯應(yīng)避免放置在主要陽光照射的地方或者被用作儲存熱量的樓板層上。然而，對于懸浮木地板，地毯可以阻止由通風(fēng)系統(tǒng)所帶來的氣流。從早到晚，被加熱的地板可以緩慢釋放它的熱量，這一過程發(fā)生的時間段包括傍晚最需要熱量的時候，這也使得房間變得非常適宜人們居住。</p><p>　　考慮到玻璃窗的需求，以下幾方面是需要注意的：</p><p>　　●采用外部百葉

28、窗或者內(nèi)部絕熱板可以降低晚上熱量的流失。</p><p>　　●在夏天，為了降低房間過熱的風(fēng)險，在設(shè)計時可以采用較深的屋檐來提供陰影。在房間內(nèi)使用窗簾是最常用的技術(shù)，但他并不能減少由于輻射所產(chǎn)生的溫度上升。</p><p>　　●熱反射玻璃和吸熱玻璃可以有效地限制房間過熱，但是他們的缺點是無法在房間需要熱量的時候給予房間足夠的溫度。</p><p>　　●遮陽駕可以

29、在降低夏季房間過熱的同時改善日光的分布。</p><p>　　直接獲得的方式即使是通過房間內(nèi)的窗戶和附加日光間也是可以的，在高處的天窗設(shè)計上也可以發(fā)生日光的直接獲得。在以上的每一種情況，我們都需要考慮他的性質(zhì)和在吸熱表面的位置。</p><p>　　在英國，氣候和緯度是人們最常需要考慮的問題。房間的深度不能超過窗戶上沿高度的2.5倍，窗地比也應(yīng)控制在25%-35%之間。</p>

30、<p>　　2.3 間接獲得陽光</p><p>　　通過這種設(shè)計方法，一個吸熱元件被嵌入到入射的太陽輻射和需要加熱的部位之間。這樣，溫度就通過一種間接地方式轉(zhuǎn)移到另一邊。他們通常會在面對太陽的一側(cè)建立這樣一面墻，然后這面墻就會控制流入建筑內(nèi)的溫度。以下是主要的原理。</p><p>　　●高比熱的部件被放置在太陽光和內(nèi)部空間之間，通過這面墻熱量被緩慢的吸收，并且在以后的時間

31、里緩慢對建筑內(nèi)部產(chǎn)生影響。</p><p>　　●人們選擇不同厚度和材料的墻來改變熱量的流動。對于家庭而言，通過延時這一流動，可以使房間在晚上最需要溫度的時候得到熱量。通常，儲熱墻的厚度在20-30cm之間。</p><p>　　●在儲熱墻外側(cè)的玻璃窗在某種程度上扮演了阻止熱量流失的角色，并可以通過產(chǎn)生類似溫室效應(yīng)的方法保存獲得的熱量。</p><p>　　●儲熱墻

32、的面積至少應(yīng)占他提供熱量樓板面積的15%-20%。</p><p>　　●為了得到更多的即時熱量，空氣可以通過儲熱墻和玻璃窗之間的缺口在屋內(nèi)外循環(huán)流動。通過這一改進(jìn)形式，這一構(gòu)件通常被命名為特朗勃墻。熱反射窗簾應(yīng)放置在玻璃窗和儲熱墻之間以防止夏季室內(nèi)溫度過高。</p><p>　　在不同的國家，不同的地區(qū)在白天因為氣候的影響可能會收到不同量的熱輻射（比如英國），在這種情況下，空氣通過流動所

33、帶來的好處就遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)要大于儲熱墻通過延時作用所帶來的好處。</p><p>　　當(dāng)系統(tǒng)獲得了過多的熱量，他可以通過與外面聯(lián)系的空洞把多余的熱量帶到房間外面，并從室外溫度相對較低的地方獲得新鮮的空氣。</p><p>　　間接獲得的方式通常被認(rèn)為是積極地日光系統(tǒng)中最不合美學(xué)范疇的，一定程度上是因為他擺放位置的限制和透過窗戶所看到的效果上，也有可能是因為其黑色的吸熱表面所暗指的含義。</p&

34、gt;<p>　　結(jié)果，這三種主要的日光設(shè)計技術(shù)雖然十分有效，但他們并不像他們沒有被廣泛應(yīng)用。</p><p>　　2.4 附加日光間或者溫室</p><p>　　對于新建的建筑或者現(xiàn)存的建筑，附加日光間已經(jīng)變得越來越流行了。他可以作為居住空間的拓展部分而存在，同時也可以是太陽能儲存器、流動空氣預(yù)熱器，或者僅僅是植物暖房的附屬用房?？偟膩碚f，由于他們經(jīng)常會被過分加熱，所以人們

35、認(rèn)為溫室從某種角度上會使全球溫度升高。我們不能把附加日光間在冬季為房間提供熱量和在夏季阻止房間被過分加熱的能力分割來看。玻璃幕墻的面積至少應(yīng)占他提供熱量面積的20%-30%。迄今為止最先進(jìn)的附加日光間不久將會在霍克頓建成。</p><p>　　最完美的情況是，夏季把熱量儲存在一個季節(jié)性的儲熱元件上讓其在冬季同樣可以產(chǎn)生效果。</p><p>　　至少，空氣在溫室和建筑本身內(nèi)流動的路徑需要被

36、小心的控制。</p><p>　　2.5 主動地太陽能系統(tǒng)</p><p>　　在積極的利用太陽熱量的同時我們必須區(qū)分一些情況，如果考慮得更早些，就說他們的活躍本性，主動的太陽能系統(tǒng)要比積極地太陽能系統(tǒng)更領(lǐng)先一步。他們把直接的太陽輻射轉(zhuǎn)變成另外一種形式的能量。太陽能集熱器使用一個閉合環(huán)形加熱器預(yù)熱水。在超過60°C的溫度下，軍團(tuán)桿菌突出的需要被儲存的熱水。那意味著在溫度適宜的地區(qū)

37、，一年中的大部分時間主動的太陽能系統(tǒng)還需要其他形式的能量源來補充其不足的部分。</p><p>　　主動地系統(tǒng)可以提供更優(yōu)質(zhì)的能源。然而，不良的后果伴隨能量的控制和人們熟知的作為“能量寄生需要”的運營系統(tǒng)而產(chǎn)生。一個更長遠(yuǎn)的區(qū)別是，使用儲存太陽熱量的系統(tǒng)和系統(tǒng)-把太陽能直接轉(zhuǎn)化成電能儲存在光電電池內(nèi)的不同。</p><p>　　為了能夠發(fā)揮太陽能的全部潛力，他需要被安裝在有區(qū)域基礎(chǔ)和擁有聯(lián)

38、系季節(jié)性儲存的平臺上。在腓特烈港，人們正在進(jìn)行一項大型項目。人們把為570戶提供能量的總共8個房頂5600㎡的太陽能吸收器所處存下來的能量中央暖氣設(shè)備或者變電站。他可以按要求把能量分發(fā)到各個房間，經(jīng)統(tǒng)計，他一共為39500㎡的居住空間提供熱量。</p><p>　　多余的夏季熱量被儲存起來，儲存方法是通過各種方式加熱的12000立方米的熱水。</p><p>　　通過這種系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生的熱量一年

39、有1915MWH之多，日光帶來的有47%。從四月到十一月，無論是哪個月，在太陽能和化石燃料所帶來的能量的比率中，太陽能幾乎都提供了全部的能量需求，這也很好的提供了主要的生活用水。</p><p>　　在那些平均氣溫較高日光也相對較充足的地區(qū)，主動地日光系統(tǒng)不單可以考慮用于加熱冷水，同樣也可以考慮被用來發(fā)電。那些不是很發(fā)達(dá)的國家可以特別注意一下。</p><p><b>　　附件2

40、：外文原文</b></p><p>　　Architecture in a Climate of Change</p><p>　　It would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buil

41、dings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs gen

42、erated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid </p><p>　　Construction systems </p><p>

43、;　　Having considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The

44、built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.</p><p>　　In the UK housin

45、g has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart

46、 from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it h

47、as been common practice to introduce insulat</p><p>　　Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the

48、Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.</p><p>　　The advantages of masonry construction are:</p><p>　　

49、● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.</p><p>　　● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago t

50、he entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.</p><p>　　● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise conside

51、rably if it receives a rendered finish.</p><p>　　● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonry

52、internal walls and concrete floors.</p><p>　　Framed construction</p><p>　　Volume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appea

53、r identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality

54、 control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With</p><p>　　Pressed steel frames for homes are no

55、w being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.</p><p>　

56、　From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.</p><p>　　Innovative techn

57、iques</p><p>　　Permanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an in

58、sulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of

59、services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/</p><p>　　The advantages of this system are:</p><p>　　● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possi

60、ble.</p><p>　　● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and plac

61、ement of concrete.</p><p>　　●The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.</p><p>　　Solar design</p><p>　　Pass

62、ive solar design</p><p>　　Since the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic respon

63、se is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.</p><p>　　Access to solar radiation is determined by a

64、number of conditions:</p><p>　　● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);</p><p>　　● site orientation and slope;</p><p>　　●

65、existing obstructions on the site;</p><p>　　● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.</p><p>　　One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the u

66、se of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to b

67、e plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and t</p

68、><p>　　Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physic

69、al models with a heliodon.</p><p>　　Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly pro

70、gram which should be well within normal undergraduate competence.</p><p>　　The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain

71、reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50N,rows of houses on a 10 north-fa

72、cing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.</p><p>　　Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar

73、penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.</p><p>　　Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.</p><p>　　Passive solar design can be divided int

74、o three broad categories:</p><p>　　● direct gain;</p><p>　　● indirect gain;</p><p>　　● attached sunspace or conservatory.</p><p>　　Each of the three categories relies i

75、n a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’ as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar

76、radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is o

77、f a much longer wavelen</p><p>　　Direct gain</p><p>　　Direct gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Sol

78、ar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s house in Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design char

79、acteristics are:</p><p>　　● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.</p><p>　　● Windows fac

80、ing west may pose a summer overheating risk.</p><p>　　● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.</p><p>　　● The

81、main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.</p><p>　　● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature

82、 fluctuations inside the building.</p><p>　　● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involv

83、ed in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.</p><p>　　● In the case of solid floors,insulation sh

84、ould be beneath the slab.</p><p>　　● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.</p><p>　　● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing porti

85、on of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone.</p><p>　　During the day and into the eve

86、ning the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.</p>&

87、lt;p>　　As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended:</p><p>　　● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.&

88、lt;/p><p>　　● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of

89、 absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.</p><p>　　● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the

90、year when it is beneficial.</p><p>　　● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.</p><p>　　Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located

91、between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and po

92、sition of the absorbing surfaces.</p><p>　　In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should

93、 be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.</p><p>　　Indirect gain</p><p>　　In this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the s

94、pace to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirect way.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The m

95、ain elements</p><p>　　● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.</p><

96、;p>　　● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall ar

97、e 20–30 cm.</p><p>　　● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.</p><

98、;p>　　● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.</p><p>　　● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air ca

99、n be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted

100、between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.</p><p>　　In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as i

101、n the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.</p><p>　　At times of excess heat gain the system can provide

102、 alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.</p><p>　　Indirect ga

103、in options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied

104、dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.</p><p>　　As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.</p